Ant fauna (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) associated to arboreal nests of Nasutitermes spp: (Isoptera, Termitidae) in a cacao plantation in southeastern Bahia, Brazil

Ants are among the most common arthropods that colonize termite nests. The aim of this study was to identify the ant fauna associated to termite nests found in a cacao plantation in the county of Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil, with emphasis on the fauna that uses the nests as foraging and/or nesting environment. For this purpose, 34 active, decadent and abandoned nests of Nasutitermes corniger, N. ephratae and Nasutitermes sp., with different volumes and degrees of activity, were dissected. A total of 54 ant species, belonging to 23 genera and five subfamilies, was found in the constructions. The active, decadent and abandoned termite nests presented, respectively, six, eight and 48 ant species. Crematogaster acuta and Ectatomma tuberculatum were the most frequent species in the active and decadent nests, respectively, while the most frequent species in the abandoned nests were Solenopsis pollux, Thaumatomyrmex contumax and Thaumatomyrmex sp. Twenty-six ant species had true colonies within the termitaria. The Formicidae species richness in the nests was inversely related to the degree of termite activity in the nests. The occurrence of living, decadent or abandoned termitaria of Nasutitermes spp. in cacao plantations foments the heterogeneity of habitats available in the plantations and favors the maintenance of high diversity of organisms that use obligatory or opportunistically this substrate.

Effect of Cocoa ( Theobroma cacao ) Plantation Types on the Distribution of Anuran Communities in Ore, Ondo State, Nigeria

Anuran species diversity and abundance were evaluated in different farming status of cocoa plantation in Ore, Ondo State, Nigeria. Applying the combination of visual encounter survey (VES) and acoustical survey (AES), the different farms surveyed were categorized as; 1) pure cocoa farms with pesticides applied (PCWP); 2) pure cocoa farms without pesticides application; 3) intercropped cocoa farms with pesticides applied (ICWP); and 4) intercropped cocoa farms without pesticides application (ICNP). The surrounding primary/secondary forest (PSFV) was sampled applying the transect method. A mean total of 690±2.6 anurans belonging to 28 species, 14 genera and 9 families were recorded during the study. Out of these, 10, 19, 17, 22 and 26 species were recorded respectively from PCWP, PCNP, ICWP, ICNP and PSFV. The anuran species richness was significantly different between the different cocoa plantation status and the forest sites (F4, 10 = 20.55, P< 0.01). The highest mean number of individuals (190±9.5) was observed at ICNP followed by PSFV (183±5.7), while the least was at PCWP (77±8.0). There was also significant difference (F4, 10 = 150.48, P< 0.01) between the abundance of anuran species at the various sites. Diversity indices (Shannon and Margalef) showed that the forest sites had the greatest (3.204 and 4.799) respectively while the pesticide using pure cocoa farms had the least (1.853 and 2.072). Generally, the result of the study clearly indicated that pesticide use cocoa farms were significantly lower compared to other sites. Farmers are encouraged to engage in intercropping (polyculture) especially with food and economic crops in a biodiversity friendly manner which could have similar characteristics of a natural ecosystem, thereby enhancing the biological diversity of agro-ecosystems.

Large Mammals in an Agroforestry Mosaic in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

The forest-like characteristics of agroforestry systems create a unique opportunity to combine agricultural production with biodiversity conservation in human-modified tropical landscapes. The cacao-growing region in southern Bahia, Brazil, encompasses Atlantic forest remnants and large extensions of agroforests, locally known as cabrucas, and harbors several endemic large mammals. Based on the differences between cabrucas and forests, we hypothesized that: (1) non-native and non-arboreal mammals are more frequent, whereas exclusively arboreal and hunted mammals are less frequent in cabrucas than forests; (2) the two systems differ in mammal assemblage structure, but not in species richness; and (3) mammal assemblage structure is more variable among cabrucas than forests. We used camera-traps to sample mammals in nine pairs of cabruca-forest sites. The high conservation value of agroforests was supported by the presence of species of conservation concern in cabrucas, and similar species richness and composition between forests and cabrucas. Arboreal species were less frequently recorded, however, and a non-native and a terrestrial species adapted to open environments (Cerdocyon thous) were more frequently recorded in cabrucas. Factors that may overestimate the conservation value of cabrucas are: the high proportion of total forest cover in the study landscape, the impoverishment of large mammal fauna in forest, and uncertainty about the long-term maintenance of agroforestry systems. Our results highlight the importance of agroforests and forest remnants for providing connectivity in human-modified tropical forest landscapes, and the importance of controlling hunting and dogs to increase the value of agroforestry mosaics.

Agroforestry systems of timber species and cacao: survival and growth during the early stages

In recent times, increased emphasis has been placed on diversifying the types of trees to shade cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) and to achieve additional services. Agroforestry systems that include profitable and native timber trees are a viable alternative but it is necessary to understand the growth characteristics of these species under different environmental conditions. Thus, timber tree species selection should be based on plant responses to biotic and abiotic factors. The aims of this study were (1) to evaluate growth rates and leaf area indices of the four commercial timber species: Cordia thaisiana, Cedrela odorata, Swietenia macrophylla and Tabebuia rosea in conjunction with incidence of insect attacks and (2) to compare growth rates of four Venezuelan Criollo cacao cultivars planted under the shade of these four timber species during the first 36 months after establishment. Parameters monitored in timber trees were: survival rates, growth rates expressed as height and diameter at breast height and leaf area index. In the four Cacao cultivars: height and basal diameter. C. thaisiana and C. odorata had the fastest growth and the highest survival rates. Growth rates of timber trees will depend on their susceptibility to insect attacks as well as to total leaf area. All cacao cultivars showed higher growth rates under the shade of C. odorata. Growth rates of timber trees and cacao cultivars suggest that combinations of cacao and timber trees are a feasible agroforestry strategy in Venezuela.

Uncover the Concealed Link: Gender & Ethnicity-Divided Local Knowledge on the Agro-Ecosystem of a Forest Margin

This research is a study about knowledge interface that aims to analyse knowledge discontinuities, the dynamic and emergent characters of struggles and interactions within gender system and ethnicity differences. The cacao boom phenomenon in Central Sulawesi is the main context for a changing of social relations of production, especially when the mode of production has shifted or is still underway from subsistence to petty commodity production. This agrarian change is not only about a change of relationship and practice, but, as my previous research has shown, also about the shift of knowledge domination, because knowledge construes social practice in a dialectical process. Agroecological knowledge is accumulated through interaction, practice and experience. At the same time the knowledge gained from new practices and experiences changes mode of interaction, so such processes provide the arena where an interface of knowledge is manifested. In the process of agro-ecological knowledge interface, gender and ethnic group interactions materialise in the decision-making of production and resource allocation at the household and community level. At this point, power/knowledge is interplayed to gain authority in decision-making. When authority dominates, power encounters resistance, whereas the dominant power and its resistance are aimed to ensure socio-economic security. Eventually, the process of struggle can be identified through the pattern of resource utilisation as a realisation of production decision-making. Such processes are varied from one community to another, and therefore, it shows uniqueness and commonalities, especially when it is placed in a context of shifting mode of production. The focus is placed on actors: men and women in their institutional and cultural setting, including the role of development agents. The inquiry is informed by 4 major questions: 1) How do women and men acquire, disseminate, and utilise their agro ecological knowledge, specifically in rice farming as a subsistence commodity, as well as in cacao farming as a petty commodity? How and why do such mechanisms construct different knowledge domains between two genders? How does the knowledge mechanism apply in different ethnics? What are the implications for gender and ethnicity based relation of production? ; 2) Using the concept of valued knowledge in a shifting mode of production context: is there any knowledge that dominates others? How does the process of domination occur and why? Is there any form of struggle, strategies, negotiation, and compromise over this domination? How do these processes take place at a household as well as community level? How does it relate to production decision-making? ; 3) Putting the previous questions in two communities with a different point of arrival on a path of agricultural commercialisation, how do the processes of struggle vary? What are the bases of the commonalities and peculiarities in both communities?; 4) How the decisions of production affect rice field - cacao plantation - forest utilisation in the two villages? How does that triangle of resource use reflect the constellation of local knowledge in those two communities? What is the implication of this knowledge constellation for the cacao-rice-forest agroecosystem in the forest margin area? Employing a qualitative approach as the main method of inquiry, indepth and dialogic interviews, participant observer role, and document review are used to gather information. A small survey and children’s writing competition are supplementary to this data collection method. The later two methods are aimed to give wider information on household decision making and perception toward the forest. It was found that local knowledge, particularly knowledge pertaining to rice-forest-cacao agroecology is divided according to gender and ethnicity. This constellation places a process of decision-making as ‘the arena of interface’ between feminine and masculine knowledge, as well as between dominant and less dominant ethnic groups. Transition from subsistence to a commercial mode of production is a context that frames a process where knowledge about cacao commodity is valued higher than rice. Market mechanism, as an external power, defines valued knowledge. Valued knowledge defines the dominant knowledge holder, and decision. Therefore, cacao cultivation becomes a dominant practice. Its existence sacrifices the presence of rice field and the forest. Knowledge about rice production and forest ecosystem exist, but is less valued. So it is unable to challenge the domination of cacao. Various forms of struggles - within gender an ethnicity context - to resist cacao domination are an expression of unequal knowledge possession. Knowledge inequality implies to unequal access to withdraw benefit from market valued crop. When unequal knowledge fails to construct a negotiated field or struggles fail to reveal ‘marginal’ decision, e.g. intensification instead of cacao expansion to the forest, interface only produces divergence. Gender and ethnicity divided knowledge is unabridged, since negotiation is unable to produce new knowledge that accommodates both interests. Rice is loaded by ecological interest to conserve the forest, while cacao is driven by economic interest to increase welfare status. The implication of this unmediated dominant knowledge of cacao production is the construction of access; access to the forest, mainly to withdraw its economic benefit by eliminating its ecological benefit. Then, access to cacao as the social relationship of production to acquire cacao knowledge; lastly, access to defend sustainable benefit from cacao by expansion. ‘Socio-economic Security’ is defined by Access. The convergence of rice and cacao knowledge, however, should be made possible across gender and ethnicity, not only for the sake of forest conservation as the insurance of ecological security, but also for community’s socio-economic security. The convergence might be found in a range of alternative ways to conduct cacao sustainable production, from agroforestry system to intensification.

The challenge of maintaining Atlantic forest biodiversity: A multi-taxa conservation assessment of specialist and generalist species in an agro-forestry mosaic in southern Bahia

Recent developments have highlighted the importance of forest amount at large spatial scales and of matrix quality for ecological processes in remnants. These developments, in turn, suggest the potential for reducing biodiversity loss through the maintenance of a high percentage of forest combined with sensitive management of anthropogenic areas. We conducted a multi-taxa survey to evaluate the potential for biodiversity maintenance in an Atlantic forest landscape that presented a favorable context from a theoretical perspective (high proportion of mature forest partly surrounded by structurally complex matrices). We sampled ferns, butterflies, frogs, lizards, bats, small mammals and birds in interiors and edges of large and small mature forest remnants and two matrices (second-growth forests and shade cacao plantations), as well as trees in interiors of small and large remnants. By considering richness, abundance and composition of forest specialists and generalists, we investigated the biodiversity value of matrix habitats (comparing them with interiors of large remnants for all groups except tree), and evaluated area (for all groups) and edge effects (for all groups except trees) in mature forest remnants. our results suggest that in landscapes comprising high amounts of mature forest and low contrasting matrices: (1) shade cacao plantations and second-growth forests harbor an appreciable number of forest specialists; (2) most forest specialist assemblages are not affected by area or edge effects, while most generalist assemblages proliferate at edges of small remnants. Nevertheless, differences in tree assemblages, especially among smaller trees, Suggest that observed patterns are unlikely to be stable over time. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Landscape and farm scale management to enhance biodiversity conservation in the cocoa producing region of southern Bahia, Brazil

In southern Bahia, Brazil, large land areas are used for the production of cocoa (Theobroma cacao), which is predominantly grown under the shade of native trees in an agroforestry system locally known as cabruca. As a dominant forest-like landscape element of the cocoa region, the cabrucas play an important role in the conservation of the region`s biodiversity. The purpose of this review is to provide the scientific basis for an action plan to reconcile cocoa production and biodiversity conservation in southern Bahia. The available research collectively highlights the diversity of responses of different species and biological groups to both the habitat quality of the cabrucas themselves and to the general characteristics of the landscape, such as the relative extent and spatial configuration of different vegetation types within the landscape mosaic. We identify factors that influence directly or indirectly the occurrence of native species in the cabrucas and the wider landscape of the cocoa region and develop recommendations for their conservation management. We show that the current scientific knowledge already provides a good basis for a biodiversity friendly management of the cocoa region of southern Bahia, although more work is needed to refine some management recommendations, especially on shade canopy composition and density, and verify their economic viability. The implementation of our recommendations should be accompanied by appropriate biological and socioeconomic monitoring and the findings should inform a broad program of adaptive management of the cabrucas and the wider cocoa landscape.

Photosynthetic activity and early growth of four Cacao genotypes as influenced by different shade regimes under West African dry and wet season conditions

The physiological performance of four cacao clones was examined under three artificial shade regimes over the course of a year in Ghana. Plants under light shade had significantly higher photosynthetic rates in the rainy seasons whereas in the dry season there was a trend of higher photosynthetic rates under heavy shade. The results imply that during the wet seasons light was the main limiting factor to photosynthesis whereas in the dry season vapour pressure deficit was the major factor limiting photosynthesis through stomatal regulation. Leaf area was generally lower under heavier shade but the difference between shade treatments varied between clones. Such differences in leaf area allocation appeared to underlie genotypic differences in final biomass production in response to shade. The results suggest that shade for young cacao should be provided based on the current ambient environment and genotype.

The influence of shade and organic fertilizer treatments on the physiology and establishment of Theobroma cacao clones

Aims: This experiment aimed to determine whether the soil application of organic fertilizers can help the establishment of cacao and whether shade alters its response to fertilizers. Study Design: The 1.6 ha experiment was conducted over a period of one crop year (between April 2007 and March 2008) at the Cocoa Research Institute of Ghana. It involved four cacao genotypes (T 79/501, PA 150, P 30 [POS] and SCA 6), three shade levels (‘light’, ‘medium’ and ‘heavy’) and two fertilizer treatments (‘no fertilizer’, and ‘140 kg/ha of cacao pod husk ash (CPHA) plus poultry manure at 1,800 kg/ha). The experiment was designed as a split-plot with the cacao genotypes as the main plot factor and shade x fertilizer combinations as the sub-plots. Methodology: Gliricidia sepium and plantains (Musa sapientum) were planted in different arrangements to create the three temporary shade regimes for the cacao. Data were collected on temperature and relative humidity of the shade environments, initial soil nutrients, soil moisture, leaf N, P and K+ contents, survival, photo synthesis and growth of test plants. Results: The genotypes P 30 [POS] and SCA 6 showed lower stomatal conductance under non-limiting conditions. In the rainy seasons, plants under light shade had the highest CO2 assimilation rates. However, in the dry season, plants under increased shade recorded greater photosynthetic rates (P = .03). A significant shade x fertilizer interaction (P = .001) on photosynthesis in the dry season showed that heavier shade increases the benefits that young cacao gets from fertilizer application in that season. Conversely, shade should be reduced during the wet seasons to minimize light limitation to assimilation. Conclusion: Under ideal weather conditions young cacao exhibits genetic variability on stomatal conductance. Also, to optimize plant response to fertilizer application shade must be adjusted taking the prevailing weather condition into account.

Estudo morfofisiológico e anatômico de dois genótipos de cacaueiro (Theobroma cacao L.) submetidos a diferentes condições de radiação solar

A luminosidade desponta como um dos fatores abióticos de maior importância no estabelecimento das plantas, podendo ocasionar alterações a nível fisiológico e anatômico, interferindo diretamente no desenvolvimento das mesmas e consequentemente, sua produtividade. O cacaueiro (Theobroma cacao – Malvaceae) possui grande interesse econômico devido à utilização de suas sementes para produção de manteiga de cacau e chocolate. Neste sentido, o objetivo deste trabalho foi comparar características fisiológicas e anatômicas de dois genótipos de cacaueiro (PH 16 e IPIRANGA 01), submetidos a diferentes condições de radiação solar de modo a inferir a respeito das condições de luminosidade mais favoráveis ao desenvolvimento dos mesmos. Foram realizadas análises de crescimento, teor de pigmentos, trocas gasosas e anatômicas caulinares e foliares. O delineamento experimental foi em Blocos casualizados (DBC), com 4 repetições em arranjo fatorial 2 x 5, constituído de dois genótipos e 5 níveis de luminosidade (0% - pleno sol -, 18%, 30%, 50% e 80% de sombreamento), totalizando 40 parcelas com 10 plantas cada. Os dados obtidos foram submetidos à análise de variância e regressão. Os resultados de crescimento indicam maior adaptação, de ambos os genótipos, em condições de irradiância alta a moderada. O índice de qualidade de Dickson demonstrou maior capacidade de sobrevivência em condições de campo a níveis altos de irradiância para o genótipo PH 16 e a níveis de irradiância moderada para IPIRANGA 01. Os teores de pigmentos fotossintetizantes de IPIRANGA 01 mostram-se mais elevados na condição de 30% de sombreamento, enquanto que, para PH 16 os maiores teores foram observados em 50% de sombreamento. Ambos os genótipos demonstraram altas taxas de A, Ci, E, A/E, A/Gs e A/Ci, sob elevadas irradiâncias, assim como adaptações anatômicas caulinares e foliares a maiores luminosidades, tais como, maior espessamento do limbo foliar, parênquima paliçádico, esponjoso, limbo foliar, epiderme adaxial e densidade estomática, além de maior densidade e frequência de elementos de vaso e espessura do xilema secundário. Os genótipos PH 16 e IPIRANGA 01 apresentaram uma grande plasticidade em relação aos diferentes níveis de irradiância, no entanto, constatou-se que PH 16 apresentou melhor desempenho sob condições de alta irradiância, como as obtidas nos tratamentos a pleno sol e 18% de sombreamento, enquanto que, IPIRANGA 01 mostrou-se mais adaptado sob sombreamento moderado, a 30% de sombra.

ESTABLISHMENT TECHNIQUES FOR TROPICAL LEGUMES IN THE UNDERSTORY OF A EUCALYPTUS PLANTATION

This study evaluated establishment methods for a mixture of herbaceous forage legumes [Centrosema acutifolium, Clitoria ternatea, Pueraria phaseoloides, Stylosanthes Campo Grande (Stylosanthes capitata + S. macrocephala), Calopogonium mucunoides, Lablab purpureus, Arachis pintoi, and Aeschynomene villosa] under the shade of an Eucalyptus grandis plantation submitted to thinning (40%) 8 years after planting in Anhembi, São Paulo (22°40'S, 48°10'W, altitude of 455 m). The experiment started in December 2008 and consisted of the comparison of the following four types of seed incorporation by light disc harrowing: (1) broadcast sowing without seed incorporation; disc harrowing before (2) or after (3) planting, and (4) disc harrowing before and after planting. Ninety days after planting, the number of legume plants/m2 and the percentage of ground cover by the plants varied between the treatments tested; however, the treatments had no effect on the dry matter accumulation of forage legumes. Disc harrowing before planting yielded superior results compared to the treatments without disc harrowing and disc harrowing after planting. At the end of the experimental period, the plots contained Arachis, Centrosema, Stylosanthes, and Pueraria. The dry matter accumulated by Centrosema corresponded to 73% of total dry matter yield of the plots. The participation of Arachis, Centrosema and Stylosanthes in final dry matter composition of the plots varied according to establishment method. The advantages of the use of species mixtures rather than monocultures in the understory of forest plantations were discussed.

Conservation in tropical landscape mosaics: the case of the cacao landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil

A recent debate has contrasted two conservation strategies in agricultural landscapes; either ""land sparing`` farm development combining intensive production practices with forest set-asides, or ""wildlife-friendly`` farming with greater on-farm habitat value but lower yields. We argue that in established mosaic landscapes including old cacao production regions where natural forest has already been reduced to relatively small fragments, a combination of both strategies is needed to conserve biodiversity. After reviewing the evidence for the insufficiency of either strategy alone if applied to such landscapes, the paper focuses on the cacao production landscape of southern Bahia, Brazil, once the world`s second largest cacao producer. Here, small remaining areas of Atlantic Forest are embedded in a matrix dominated by traditional cacao agroforests, resulting in a landscape mosaic that has proven favorable to the conservation of the region`s high biodiversity. We show that current land use dynamics and public policies pose threats but also offer opportunities to conservation and describe a three- pronged landscape conservation strategy, consisting of (i) expansion of the protected areas system, (ii) promotion of productive yet biodiversity-friendly cacao farming practices, and (iii) assistance to land users to implement legally mandated on-farm reserves and voluntary private reserves. We discuss recent experiences concerning the implementation of this strategy, discuss likely future scenarios, and reflect on the applicability of the Bahian experience to biodiversity rich cacao production regions elsewhere in the tropics.

Cacao trees in tropical agroforestry landscapes of the Napu Valley in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

All sample sites were situated at the northern tip of Napu Valley in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. After an initial mapping of the study area, we selected 15 smallholder cacao plantations as sites for bird and bat exclosure experiments in March 2010. On each study site, we established 4 treatments for these exclosure experiments (bird exclosure - closed during daytime and open during night; bat exclosure - closed overnight and opened during daytime; full exclosure of both birds and bats - always closed and unmanipulated/open control treatments - always open). In each treatment, there were 2 cacao trees (total of 8 cacao trees per study site), surrounded by nylon filament (2x2 cm mesh size) that was opened and closed according to the activity period of day and night active flying vertebrates (05:00-06:00 am and 17:00-18:00 pm) on a daily basis. The mean tree height and diameter at breast height (dbh) result from two measures of all study trees at the beginning of the exclosure experiment (June 2010) and 6 months later (February 2011).

Avian species identity and predation success in tropical cacao agroforestry of the Napu Valley in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

Avian ecosystem services such as the suppression of pests are considered being of high ecological and economic importance in a range of ecosystems, especially in tropical agroforestry. But how bird predation success is related to the diversity and composition of the bird community, as well as local and landscape factors, is poorly understood. The author quantified arthropod predation in relation to the identity and diversity of insectivorous birds, using experimental exposure of artificial, caterpillar-like prey on smallholder cacao agroforestry systems, differing in local shade management and distance to primary forest. The bird community was assessed using both mist netting (targeting on active understory insectivores) and point count (higher completeness of species inventories) sampling. The study was conducted in a land use dominated area in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, adjacent to the Lore Lindu National Park. We selected 15 smallholder cacao plantations as sites for bird and bat exclosure experiments in March 2010. Until July 2011, we recorded several data in this study area, including the bird community data, cacao tree data and bird predation experiments that are presented here. We found that avian predation success can be driven by single and abundant insectivorous species, rather than by overall bird species richness. Forest proximity was important for enhancing the density of this key species, but did also promote bird species richness. The availability of local shade trees had no effects on the local bird community or avian predation success. Our findings are both of economical as well as ecological interest because the conservation of nearby forest remnants will likely benefit human needs and biodiversity conservation alike.