Expression in aneuploid Drosophila S2 cells.

Extensive departures from balanced gene dose in aneuploids are highly deleterious. However, we know very little about the relationship between gene copy number and expression in aneuploid cells. We determined copy number and transcript abundance (expression) genome-wide in Drosophila S2 cells by DNA-Seq and RNA-Seq. We found that S2 cells are aneuploid for >43 Mb of the genome, primarily in the range of one to five copies, and show a male genotype ( approximately two X chromosomes and four sets of autosomes, or 2X;4A). Both X chromosomes and autosomes showed expression dosage compensation. X chromosome expression was elevated in a fixed-fold manner regardless of actual gene dose. In engineering terms, the system "anticipates" the perturbation caused by X dose, rather than responding to an error caused by the perturbation. This feed-forward regulation resulted in precise dosage compensation only when X dose was half of the autosome dose. Insufficient compensation occurred at lower X chromosome dose and excessive expression occurred at higher doses. RNAi knockdown of the Male Specific Lethal complex abolished feed-forward regulation. Both autosome and X chromosome genes show Male Specific Lethal-independent compensation that fits a first order dose-response curve. Our data indicate that expression dosage compensation dampens the effect of altered DNA copy number genome-wide. For the X chromosome, compensation includes fixed and dose-dependent components.

Cytorhabdovirus phosphoprotein shows RNA silencing suppressor activity in plants, but not in insect cells

RNA silencing in plants and insects provides an antiviral defense and as a countermeasure most viruses encode RNA silencing suppressors (RSS). For the family Rhabdoviridae, no detailed functional RSS studies have been reported in plant hosts and insect vectors. In agroinfiltrated Nicotiana benthamiana leaves we show for the first time for a cytorhabdovirus, lettuce necrotic yellows virus (LNYV), that one of the nucleocapsid core proteins, phosphoprotein (P) has relatively weak local RSS activity and delays systemic silencing of a GFP reporter. Analysis of GFP small RNAs indicated that the P protein did not prevent siRNA accumulation. To explore RSS activity in insects, we used a Flock House virus replicon system in Drosophila S2 cells. In contrast to the plant host, LNYV P protein did not exhibit RSS activity in the insect cells. Taken together our results suggest that P protein may target plant-specific components of RNA silencing post siRNA biogenesis.

Étude de la voie de signalisation de l’insuline chez la drosophile par une approche phosphoprotéomique

La phosphorylation est une modification post-traductionnelle modulant l’activité, la conformation ou la localisation d’une protéine et régulant divers processus. Les kinases et phosphatases sont responsables de la dynamique de phosphorylation et agissent de manière coordonnée. L’activation anormale ou la dérégulation de kinases peuvent conduire au développement de cancers ou de désordres métaboliques. Les récepteurs tyrosine kinase (RTKs) sont souvent impliqués dans des maladies et la compréhension des mécanismes régissant leur régulation permet de déterminer les effets anticipés sur leurs substrats. Dans ce contexte, le but de cette thèse est d’identifier les évènements de phosphorylation intervenant dans la voie de l’insuline chez la drosophile impliquant un RTK : le récepteur de l’insuline (InR). La cascade de phosphorylation déclenchée suite à l’activation du récepteur est conservée chez le mammifère. Afin d’étudier le phosphoprotéome de cellules S2 de drosophile, nous avons utilisé une étape d’enrichissement de phosphopeptides sur dioxyde de titane suivie de leur séparation par chromatographie liquide (LC) et mobilité ionique (FAIMS). Les phosphopeptides sont analysés par spectrométrie de masse en tandem à haute résolution. Nous avons d’abord démontré les bénéfices de l’utilisation du FAIMS comparativement à une étude conventionnelle en rapportant une augmentation de 50 % dans le nombre de phosphopeptides identifiés avec FAIMS. Cette technique permet de séparer des phosphoisomères difficilement distinguables par LC et l’acquisition de spectres MS/MS distincts où la localisation précise du phosphate est déterminée. Nous avons appliqué cette approche pour l’étude des phosphoprotéomes de cellules S2 contrôles ou traitées à l’insuline et avons identifié 32 phosphopeptides (sur 2 660 quantifiés) pour lesquels la phosphorylation est modulée. Étonnamment, 50 % des cibles régulées possèdent un site consensus pour la kinase CK2. Une stratégie d’inhibition par RNAi a été implémentée afin d’investiguer le rôle de CK2 dans la voie de l’insuline. Nous avons identifié 6 phosphoprotéines (CG30085, su(var)205, scny, protein CDV3 homolog, D1 et mu2) positivement régulées suite à l’insuline et négativement modulées après le traitement par RNAi CK2. Par essai kinase in vitro, nous avons identifié 29 cibles directes de CK2 dont 15 corrélaient avec les résultats obtenus par RNAi. Nous avons démontré que la phosphorylation de su(var)205 (S15) était modulée par l’insuline en plus d’être une cible directe de CK2 suite à l’expérience RNAi et à l’essai kinase. L’analyse des données phosphoprotéomiques a mis en évidence des phosphopeptides isomériques dont certains étaient séparables par FAIMS. Nous avons déterminé leur fréquence lors d’études à grande échelle grâce à deux algorithmes. Le script basé sur les différences de temps de rétention entre isomères a identifié 64 phosphoisomères séparés par LC chez la souris et le rat (moins de 1 % des peptides identifiés). Chez la drosophile, 117 ont été répertoriés en combinaison avec une approche ciblée impliquant des listes d’inclusion. Le second algorithme basé sur la présence d’ions caractéristiques suite à la fragmentation de formes qui co-éluent a rapporté 23 paires isomériques. L’importance de pouvoir distinguer des phosphoisomères est capitale dans le but d’associer une fonction biologique à un site de phosphorylation précis qui doit être identifié avec confiance.

La formine Diaphanous est essentielle pour l’organisation et la maturation de l’anneau contractile pendant la cytokinèse

Une cellule se divise en deux par le processus de cytokinèse. Elle requiert la coordination de plusieurs composants pour éviter la formation des cellules potentiellement cancéreuses. Premièrement, un anneau contractile (AC) dépendant de l’actine et de Rho-GTP diminue le diamètre de la cellule jusqu’à la formation d’une structure plus stable indépendante de l’actine, l’anneau du midbody (AM) qui guide l’éventuelle séparation des cellules sœurs. Diaphanous (Dia) est une formine dépendante de Rho responsable de l’agencement des filaments d’actine non ramifiés qui se localise à l’AC et est essentielle à la cytokinèse. Nous avons étudié le rôle de Dia pendant la cytokinèse par microscopie de haute résolution en temps réel pour suivre le comportement dynamique des protéines fluorescentes (PF) dans des cellules de Drosophile S2. Une construction fonctionnelle de Dia-PF est recrutée à l’AC et l’AM indépendamment de l’actine mais est absente dans l’AM mature. Dia quitte l’AM au même temps où l’AM dévient indépendant d’actine. La déplétion de Dia par ARN interférant ralentit la constriction de l’AC, augmente les oscillations et, dans 70% des cas, les cellules échouent la cytokinèse pendant la constriction, suggérant que Dia a un rôle dans l’organisation de l’AC. LifeAct-PF, une sonde pour F-actine, dévoile une diminution des filaments d’actine spécifique à l’AC des cellules dépourvues de Dia pendant que Anilline-PF et Myosine-PF sont recrutées en puncta. Ces résultats soutiennent un modèle où Dia nuclée des filaments d’actine qui permettent l’organisation dynamique de l’AC et la perte de Dia régule la transition à l’AM stable indépendant d’actine.

L'implication de la Cycline B dans le processus de cytocinèse

Un dérèglement du cycle cellulaire peut causer le cancer. Lors de la cytocinèse un anneau contractile d’actine et de myosine se forme, se contracte, et donne un anneau du midbody qui mène à l’abscision. Le processus de cytocinèse est sous le contrôle de protéines telles que la GTPase Rho qui active la cytocinèse et les cyclines-Cdks qui l'inhibent. La Drosophile possède 3 cyclines mitotiques CycA/ CycB/ CycB3 qui sont successivement dégradées en fin de mitose et permettent l'initiation de la cytocinèse. La dernière étape d’abscission est un phénomène qui reste encore peu connu. Les protéines Vps4 et CHMP4C liées à ANCHR vont, sous la dépendance de la kinase Aurora B, promouvoir l’abscision mais, suite à quelques études récentes, il semble y avoir une implication de la cycline B. Ici, le but était de tester l’implication de cette cycline dans les processus de cytocinèse et d’abscision, elle a été menée par microscopie à haute résolution en temps réel avec des cellules S2 de l’organisme Drosophila melanogaster par le suivi de protéines recombinantes fluorescentes. L’étude a été divisée en deux axes : gain et perte de fonction par l’intermédiaire respectivement de la protéine Cycline B recombinante stable, non dégradable (CycBstable-GFP) et l’inhibition par l’utilisation d’ARN double brin (ARNdb) sur l’endogène. La CycBstable-GFP a perturbé la cytocinèse en induisant plusieurs anneaux contractiles et midbodies. En revanche la réduction de l’expression de CycB n'a pas eu d’effet observable, et elle ne semble pas avoir d’action sur l’abscission malgré le recrutement de CycB-GFP au midbody tardif. En revanche la protéine Cdk1 semble avoir un rôle dans l'abscision puisque sa réduction d’expression a induit un délai. Elle a donc une implication potentielle sur la cytocinèse.

Insulin and TOR pathways regulate cellular and organismal growth through the myc oncogene in Drosophila

A large body of literature documents in both mice and Drosophila the involvement of Insulin pathway in growth regulation, probably due to its role in glucose and lipid import, nutrient storage, and translation of RNAs implicated in ribosome biogenesis (Vanhaesebroeck et al. 2001). Moreover several lines of evidence implicate this pathway as a causal factor in cancer (Sale, 2008; Zeng and Yee 2007; Hursting et al., 2007; Chan et al., 2008). With regards to Myc, studies in cell culture have implied this family of transcription factors as regulators of the cell cycle that are rapidly induced in response to growth factors. Myc is a potent oncogene, rearranged and overexpressed in a wide range of human tumors and necessary during development. Its conditional knock-out in mice results in reduction of body weight due to defect in cell proliferation (Trumpp et al. 2001). Evidence from in vivo studies in Drosophila and mammals suggests a critical function for myc in cell growth regulation (Iritani and Eisenman 1999; Johnston et al. 1999; Kim et al. 2000; de Alboran et al. 2001; Douglas et al. 2001). This role is supported by our analysis of Myc target genes in Drosophila, which include genes involved in RNA binding, processing, ribosome biogenesis and nucleolar function (Orain et al 2003, Bellosta et al., 2005, Hulf et al, 2005). The fact that Insulin signaling and Myc have both been associated with growth control suggests that they may interact with each other. However, genetic evidence suggesting that Insulin signaling regulates Myc in vivo is lacking. In this work we were able to show, for the first time, a direct modulation of dMyc in response to Insulin stimulation/silencing both in vitro and in vivo. Our results suggest that dMyc up-regulation in response to DILPs signaling occurs both at the mRNA and potein level. We believe dMyc protein accumulation after Insulin signaling activation is conditioned to AKT-dependent GSK3β/sgg inactivation. In fact, we were able to demonstate that dMyc protein stabilization through phosphorylation is a conserved feature between Drosophila and vertebrates and requires multiple events. The final phosphorylation step, that results in a non-stable form of dMyc protein, ready to be degraded by the proteasome, is performed by GSK3β/sgg kinase (Sears, 2004). At the same time we demonstrated that CKI family of protein kinase are required to prime dMyc phosphorylation. DILPs and TOR/Nutrient signalings are known to communicate at several levels (Neufeld, 2003). For this reason we further investigated TOR contribution to dMyc-dependent growth regulation. dMyc protein accumulates in S2 cells after aminoacid stimulation, while its mRNA does not seem to be affected upon TORC1 inhibition, suggesting that the Nutrient pathway regulates dMyc mostly post-transcriptionally. In support to this hypothesis, we observed a TORC1-dependent GSK3β/sgg inactivation, further confirming a synergic effect of DILPs and Nutrients on dMyc protein stability. On the other hand, our data show that Rheb but not S6K, both downstream of the TOR kinase, contributes to the dMyc-induced growth of the eye tissue, suggesting that Rheb controls growth independently of S6K.. Moreover, Rheb seems to be able to regulate organ size during development inducing cell death, a mechanism no longer occurring in absence of dmyc. These observations suggest that Rheb might control growth through a new pathway independent of TOR/S6K but still dependent on dMyc. In order to dissect the mechanism of dMyc regulation in response to these events, we analyzed the relative contribution of Rheb, TOR and S6K to dMyc expression, biochemically in S2 cells and in vivo in morphogenetic clones and we further confirmed an interplay between Rheb and Myc that seems to be indipendent from TOR. In this work we clarified the mechanisms that stabilize dMyc protein in vitro and in vivo and we observed for the first time dMyc responsiveness to DILPs and TOR. At the same time, we discovered a new branch of the Nutrient pathway that appears to drive growth through dMyc but indipendently from TOR. We believe our work shed light on the mechanisms cells use to grow or restrain growth in presence/absence of growth promoting cues and for this reason it contributes to understand the physiology of growth control.

Neuronal differentiation and epithelial integrity: the role of Drosophila Short stop

The nervous system is the most complex organ in animals and the ordered interconnection of neurons is an essential prerequisite for normal behaviour. Neuronal connectivity requires controlled neuronal growth and differentiation. Neuronal growth essentially depends on the actin and microtubule cytoskeleton, and it has become increasingly clear, that crosslinking of these cytoskeletal fractions is a crucial regulatory process. The Drosophila Spectraplakin family member Short stop (Shot) is such a crosslinker and is crucial for several aspects of neuronal growth. Shot comprises various domains: An actin binding domain, a plakin-like domain, a rod domain, calcium responsive EF-hand motifs, a microtubule binding Gas2 domain, a GSR motif and a C-terminal EB1aff domain. Amongst other phenotypes, shot mutant animals exhibit severely reduced dendrites and neuromuscular junctions, the subcellular compartmentalisation of the transmembrane protein Fasciclin2 is affected, but it is also crucially required in other tissues, for example for the integrity of tendon cells, specialised epidermal cells which anchor muscles to the body wall. Despite these striking phenotypes, Shot function is little understood, and especially we do not understand how it can carry out functions as diverse as those described above. To bridge this gap, I capitalised on the genetic possibilities of the model system Drosophila melanogaster and carried out a structure-function analysis in different neurodevelopmental contexts and in tendon cells. To this end, I used targeted gene expression of existing and newly generated Shot deletion constructs in Drosophila embryos and larvae, analyses of different shot mutant alleles, and transfection of Shot constructs into S2 cells or cultured fibroblasts. My analyses reveal that a part of the Shot C-terminus is not essential in the nervous system but in tendon cells where it stabilises microtubules. The precise molecular mechanism underlying this activity is not yet elucidated but, based on the findings presented here, I have developed three alternative testable hypothesis. Thus, either binding of the microtubule plus-end tracking molecule EB1 through an EB1aff domain, microtubulebundling through a GSR rich motif or a combination of both may explain a context-specific requirement of the Shot C-terminus for tendon cell integrity. Furthermore, I find that the calcium binding EF-hand motif in Shot is exclusively required for a subset of neuronal functions of Shot but not in the epidermal tendon cells. These findings pave the way for complementary studies studying the impact of [Ca2+] on Shot function. Besides these differential requirements of Shot domains I find, that most Shot domains are required in the nervous system and tendon cells alike. Thus the microtubule Gas2 domain shows no context specific requirements and is equally essential in all analysed cellular contexts. Furthermore, I could demonstrate a partial requirement of the large spectrin-repeat rod domain of Shot in neuronal and epidermal contexts. I demonstrate that this domain is partially required in processes involving growth and/or tissue stability but dispensable for cellular processes where no mechanical stress resistance is required. In addition, I demonstrate that the CH1 domain a part of the N-terminal actin binding domain of Shot is only partially required for all analysed contexts. Thus, I conclude that Shot domains are functioning different in various cellular environments. In addition my study lays the base for future projects, such as the elucidation of Shot function in growth cones. Given the high degree of conservation between Shot and its mammalian orthologues MACF1/ACF7 and BPAG1, I believe that the findings presented in this study will contribute to the general understanding of spectraplakins across species borders.

Genetic Manipulation, Gene Silencing and Biomarker Development in Multiple Experimental Models.

The thesis is set in three different parts, according to the relative experimental models. First, the domestic pig (Sus scrofa) is part of the study on reproductive biotechnologies: the transgenesis technique of Sperm Mediated Gene Transfer is widely studied starting from the quality of the semen, through the study of multiple uptakes of exogenous DNA and lastly used in the production of multi-transgenic blastocysts. Finally we managed to couple the transgenesis pipeline with sperm sorting and therefore produced transgenic embryos of predetermined sex. In the second part of the thesis the attention is on the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) and on its derived cell line: the S2 cells. The in vitro and in vivo models are used to develop and validate an efficient way to knock down the myc gene. First an efficient in vitro protocol is described, than we demonstrate how the decrease in myc transcript remarkably affects the ribosome biogenesis through the study of Polysome gradients, rRNA content and qPCR. In vivo we identified two optimal drivers for the conditional silencing of myc, once the flies are fed with RU486: the first one is throughout the whole body (Tubulin), while the second is a head fat body driver (S32). With these results we present a very efficient model to study the role of myc in multiple aspects of translation. In the third and last part, the focus is on human derived lung fibroblasts (hLF-1), mouse tail fibroblasts and mouse tissues. We developed an efficient assay to quantify the total protein content of the nucleus on a single cell level via fluorescence. We coupled the protocol with classical immunofluorescence so to have at the same time general and particular information, demonstrating that during senescence nuclear proteins increase by 1.8 fold either in human cells, mouse cells and mouse tissues.

Cellular localization and mechanism of amyloid precursor protein (APP) homodimer formation in an oxidizing environment

The amyloid precursor protein (APP) is a type I transmembrane glycoprotein, which resembles a cell surface receptor, comprising a large ectodomain, a single spanning transmembrane part and a short C-terminal, cytoplasmic domain. It belongs to a conserved gene family, with over 17 members, including also the two mammalian APP homologues proteins APLP1 and APLP2 („amyloid precursor like proteins“). APP is encoded by 19 exons, of which exons 7, 8, and 15 can be alternatively spliced to produce three major protein isoforms APP770, APP751 and APP695, reflecting the number of amino acids. The neuronal APP695 is the only isoform that lacks a Kunitz Protease Inhibitor (KPI) domain in its extracellular portion whereas the two larger, peripheral APP isoforms, contain the 57-amino-acid KPI insert. rnRecently, research effort has suggested that APP metabolism and function is thought to be influenced by homodimerization and that the oligomerization state of APP could also play a role in the pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD), by regulating its processing and amyloid beta production. Several independent studies have shown that APP can form homodimers within the cell, driven by motifs present in the extracellular domain, as well as in the juxtamembrane (JM) and transmembrane (TM) regions of the molecule, whereby the exact molecular mechanism and the origin of dimer formation remains elusive. Therefore, we focused in our study on the actual subcellular origin of APP homodimerization within the cell, an underlying mechanism, and a possible impact on dimerization properties of its homologue APLP1. Furthermore, we analyzed homodimerization of various APP isoforms, in particular APP695, APP751 and APP770, which differ in the presence of a Kunitz-type protease inhibitor domain (KPI) in the extracellular region. In order to assess the cellular origin of dimerization under different cellular conditions, we established a mammalian cell culture model-system in CHO-K1 (chinese hamster ovary) cells, stably overexpressing human APP, harboring dilysine based organelle sorting motifs at the very C-terminus [KKAA-Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER); KKFF-Golgi]. In this study we show that APP exists as disulfide-bound, SDS-stable dimers, when it was retained in the ER, unlike when it progressed further to the cis-Golgi, due to the KKFF ER exit determinant. These stable APP complexes were isolated from cells, and analyzed by SDS–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis under non-reducing conditions, whereas strong denaturing and reducing conditions completely converted those dimers to monomers. Our findings suggested that APP homodimer formation starts early in the secretory pathway and that the unique oxidizing environment of the ER likely promotes intermolecular disulfide bond formation between APP molecules. We particularly visualized APP dimerization employing a variety of biochemical experiments and investigated the origin of its generation by using a Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC) approach with split GFP-APP chimeras. Moreover, using N-terminal deletion constructs, we demonstrate that intermolecular disulfide linkage between cysteine residues, exclusively located in the extracellular E1 domain, represents another mechanism of how an APP sub-fraction can dimerize within the cell. Additionally, mutational studies revealed that cysteines at positions 98 and 105, embedded in the conserved loop region within the E1 domain, are critical for interchain disulfide bond formation. Using a pharmacological treatment approach, we show that once generated in the oxidative environment of the ER, APP dimers remain stably associated during transport, reaching the plasma membrane. In addition, we demonstrate that APP isoforms, encompassing the KPI domain, exhibit a strongly reduced ability to form cis-directed dimers in the ER, whereas trans-directed cell aggregation of Drosophila Schneider (S2)-cells was isoform independent, mediating cell-cell contacts. Thus, suggesting that steric properties of KPI-APP might be the cause for weaker cis-interaction in the ER, compared to APP695. Finally, we provide evidence that APP/APLP1 heterointeractions are likewise initiated in the ER, suggesting a similar mechanism for heterodimerization. Therefore, dynamic alterations of APP between monomeric, homodimeric, and possibly heterodimeric status could at least partially explain some of the variety in the physiological functions of APP.rn

A Cell Biological Determination of Integrator Subunit Localization

Uridine-rich small nuclear (U snRNAs), with the exception of the U6 snRNA, are RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) transcripts. The mechanism of 3’ cleavage of snRNAs has been unknown until recently. This area was greatly advanced when 12 of the Integrator complex subunits (IntS) were purified in 2005 through their interaction with the C-terminal domain (CTD) of the large subunit (RpbI) of RNAPII. Subsequently, our lab performed a genome-wide RNAi screen that identified two more members of the complex that we have termed IntS13 and IntS14. We have determined that IntS9 and 11 mediate the 3’ cleavage of snRNAs, but the exact function of the other subunits remains unknown. However, through the use of a U7 snRNA-GFP reporter and RNAi knockdown of the Integrator subunits in Drosophila S2 cells, we have shown that all subunits are required for the proper processing of snRNAs, albeit to differing degrees. Because snRNA transcription takes place in the nucleus of the cell, it is expected that all of the Integrator subunits would exhibit nuclear localization, but the knowledge of discrete subnuclear localization (i.e. to Cajal bodies) of any of the subunits could provide important clues to the function of that subunit. In this study, we used a cell biological approach to determine the localization of the 14 Integrator subunits. We hypothesized that the majority of the subunits would be nuclear, however, a few would display distinct localization to the Cajal bodies, as this is where snRNA genes are localized and transcribed. The specific aims and results are: 1. To determine the subcellular localization of the 14 Integrator subunits. To accomplish this, mCherry and GFP tagged clones were generated for each of the 14 Drosophila and human Integrator subunits. Confocal microscopy studies revealed that the majority of the subunits were diffuse in the nucleus, however, IntS3 formed discrete subnuclear foci. Surprisingly, two of the subunits, IntS2 and 7 were observed in cytoplasmic foci. 2. To further characterize Integrator subunits with unique subcellular localizations. Colocalization studies with endogenous IntS3 and Cajal body marker, coilin, showed that these two proteins overlap, and from this we concluded that IntS3 localized to Cajal bodies. Additionally, colocalization studies with mCherry-tagged IntS2 and 7 and the P body marker, Dcp1, revealed that these proteins colocalize as well. IntS7, however, is more stable in cytoplasmic foci than Dcp1. It was also shown through RNAi knockdown of Integrator subunits, that the cytoplasmic localization of IntS2 and 7 is dependent on the expression of IntS1 and 11 in S2 cells.

Evolutionary conservation of the U7 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein in Drosophila melanogaster.

The U7 snRNP involved in histone RNA 3' end processing is related to but biochemically distinct from spliceosomal snRNPs. In vertebrates, the Sm core structure assembling around the noncanonical Sm-binding sequence of U7 snRNA contains only five of the seven standard Sm proteins. The missing Sm D1 and D2 subunits are replaced by U7-specific Sm-like proteins Lsm10 and Lsm11, at least the latter of which is important for histone RNA processing. So far, it was unknown if this special U7 snRNP composition is conserved in invertebrates. Here we describe several putative invertebrate Lsm10 and Lsm11 orthologs that display low but clear sequence similarity to their vertebrate counterparts. Immunoprecipitation studies in Drosophila S2 cells indicate that the Drosophila Lsm10 and Lsm11 orthologs (dLsm10 and dLsm11) associate with each other and with Sm B, but not with Sm D1 and D2. Moreover, dLsm11 associates with the recently characterized Drosophila U7 snRNA and, indirectly, with histone H3 pre-mRNA. Furthermore, dLsm10 and dLsm11 can assemble into U7 snRNPs in mammalian cells. These experiments demonstrate a strong evolutionary conservation of the unique U7 snRNP composition, despite a high degree of primary sequence divergence of its constituents. Therefore, Drosophila appears to be a suitable system for further genetic studies of the cell biology of U7 snRNPs.

Confocal analysis of synaptic connectivity of the rod pathway in the rabbit retina

The retina is a specialized neuronal structure that transforms the optical image into electrical signals which are transmitted to the brain via the optic nerve. As part of the strategy to cover a stimulus range as broad as 10 log units, from dim starlight to bright sunlight, retinal circuits are broadly divided into rod and cone pathways, responsible for dark and light-adapted vision, respectively. ^ In this dissertation, confocal microscopy and immunocytochemical methods were combined to study the synaptic connectivity of the rod pathway from the level of individual synapses to whole populations of neurons. The study was focused on synaptic interactions at the rod bipolar terminal. The purpose is to understand the synaptic structure of the dyad synapse made by rod bipolar terminals, including the synaptic components and connections, and their physiological functions in the rod pathway. In addition, some additional components and connections of the rod pathway were also studied in these experiments. The major results can be summarized as following: At the dyad synapse of rod bipolar terminals, three postsynaptic components—processes of All amacrine cells and the varicosities of S1 or S2 amacrine cells express different glutamate receptor subunits, which may underlie the functional diversity of these postsynaptic neurons. A reciprocal feedback system is formed by rod bipolar terminals and S1/S2 amacrine cells. Analysis showed these two wide-field GABA amacrine cells have stereotyped synaptic connections with the appropriate morphology and distribution to perform specific functions. In addition, S1 and S2 cells have different coupling patterns and, in general, there is no coupling between the two types. Besides the classic rod pathway though rod bipolar cells and All amacrine cells, the finding of direct connections between certain types of OFF cone bipolar cells and rods indicates the presence of an alternative rod pathway in the rabbit retina. ^ In summary, this dissertation presents a detailed view of the connection and receptors at rod bipolar terminals. Based on the morphology, distribution and coupling, different functional roles were identified for S1 and S2 amacrine cells. Finally, an alternative to the classic rod pathway was found in the rabbit retina. ^

Negative regulation of Drosophila Transformer2 by SR splicing factors

The Drosophila Transformer-2 (Tra2) protein activates the splicing of doublesex and fruitless pre-mRNA and represses M1 intron splicing in its own RNA in male germline. The M1 retention is part of negative feedback mechanism that controls Tra2 protein synthesis. However it is not known how the M1 intron is repressed or why Tra2 activates splicing of some RNAs while repressing splicing in others. Here we show that Tra2 and SR protein Rbp1 function together to specifically repress M1 splicing in vitro through the same intronic silencer by binding independently to distinct sites. The role of Rbp1 in M1 repression in vivo was validated by the finding that increased expression of Rbp1 in S2 cells promotes M1 retention. Furthermore, Tra2 blocks prespliceosomal A complex formation, a step corresponding to U2 snRNP recruitment to the branchpoint. High levels of Tra2 repression require an upstream enhancer. Together, we propose that the complex formed by Tra2 and Rbp1 on the silencer achieves splicing repression by blocking the recognition of the branchpoint or antagonizing enhancer function. ^ In addition, both splicing regulatory activities of Tra2 are essential developmental events, doublesex splicing is the key for Drosophila sex determination in the soma, while M1 retention occurs in the male germline and is necessary for spermatogenesis. However, active Tra2 is expressed ubiquitously. So another issue we have studied is how Tra2 accomplishes negative and positive splicing regulation in a tissue-specific fashion. Surprisingly, we found that nuclear extract from somatically-derived S2 cells support M1 repression in vitro. This led us to hypothesize that no germline specific factor is required and that high levels of Tra2 expression in the male germline is sufficient to trigger M1 retention. To test it, I examined whether increased expression of Tra2 could promote M1 retention in cells outside male germline. My results show that increased Tra2 expression promotes M1 retention in somatically-derived S2 cells as well as in the somatic tissues of living flies. These results show that somatic tissues are capable of supporting M1 repression but do not normally do so because the low levels of Tra2 do not trigger negative feedback regulation. ^

GENETIC INTERACTIONS OF FACTORS THAT REGULATE ALTERNATIVE RNA SPLICING IN THE MALE GERM LINE OF DROSOPHILA

Alternative RNA splicing is a critical process that contributes variety to protein functions, and further controls cell differentiation and normal development. Although it is known that most eukaryotic genes produce multiple transcripts in which splice site selection is regulated, how RNA binding proteins cooperate to activate and repress specific splice sites is still poorly understood. In addition how the regulation of alternative splicing affects germ cell development is also not well known. In this study, Drosophila Transformer 2 (Tra2) was used as a model to explore both the mechanism of its repressive function on its own pre-mRNA splicing, and the effect of the splicing regulation on spermatogenesis in testis. Half-pint (Hfp), a protein known as splicing activator, was identified in an S2 cell-based RNAi screen as a co-repressor that functions in combination with Tra2 in the splicing repression of the M1 intron. Its repressive splicing function is found to be sequence specific and is dependent on both the weak 3’ splice site and an intronic splicing silencer within the M1 intron. In addition we found that in vivo, two forms of Hfp are expressed in a cell type specific manner. These alternative forms differ at their amino terminus affecting the presence of a region with four RS dipeptides. Using assays in Drosophila S2 cells, we determined that the alternative N terminal domain is necessary in repression. This difference is probably due to differential localization of the two isoforms in the nucleus and cytoplasm. Our in vivo studies show that both Hfp and Tra2 are required for normal spermatogenesis and cooperate in repression of M1 splicing in spermatocytes. But interestingly, Tra2 and Hfp antagonize each other’s function in regulating germline specific alternative splicing of Taf1 (TBP associated factor 1). Genetic and cytological studies showed that mutants of Hfp and Taf1 both cause similar defects in meiosis and spermatogenesis. These results suggest Hfp regulates normal spermatogenesis partially through the regulation of taf1 splicing. These observations indicate that Hfp regulates tra2 and taf1 activity and play an important role in germ cell differentiation of male flies.

Functional Analysis of Drosophila Integrator Complex in snRNA 3' End Processing

Uridine-rich small nuclear RNAs (U snRNAs) play essential roles in eukaryotic gene expression by facilitating the removal of introns from mRNA precursors and the processing of the replication-dependent histone pre-mRNAs. Formation of the 3’ end of these snRNAs is carried out by a poorly characterized, twelve-membered protein complex named Integrator Complex. In the effort to understand Integrator Complex function in the formation of the snRNA 3’ end, we performed a functional RNAi screen in Drosophila S2 cells to identify protein factors required for snRNA 3’ end formation. This screen was conducted by using a fluorescence-based reporter that elicits GFP expression in response to a deficiency in snRNA processing. Besides scoring the known Integrator subunits, we identified Asunder and CG4785 as additional core members of the Integrator Complex. Additionally, we also found a conserved requirement for Cyclin C and Cdk8 in both fly and human snRNA 3’ end processing. We have further demonstrated that the kinase activity of Cdk8 is critical for snRNA 3’ end processing and is likely to function independent of its well-documented function within the Mediator Cdk8 module. Taken together, this work functionally defines the Drosophila Integrator Complex and demonstrates a novel function for Cyclin C/Cdk8 in snRNA 3’ end formation. This thesis work has also characterized an important functional interaction mediated by a microdomain within Integrator subunit 12 (IntS12) and IntS1 that is required for the activity of the Integrator Complex in processing the snRNA 3’ end. Through the development of a reporter-based functional RNAi-rescue assay in Drosophila S2 cells, we analyzed domains within IntS12 required for snRNA 3’ end formation. This analysis unexpectedly revealed that an N-terminal 30 amino acid region and not the highly conserved central PHD finger domain, is required for snRNA 3’ end cleavage. The IntS12 microdomain (1-45) functions autonomously, and is sufficient to interact and stabilize the putative scaffold protein IntS1. Our findings provide more details of the Integrator Complex for understanding the molecular mechanism of snRNA 3’ end processing. Moreover, these results lay the foundation for future studies of the complex through the identification of a novel functional domain within one subunit and the identification of additional subunits.