Angular momentum of S0 galaxies

The aim of this thesis is to study the angular momentum of a sample of S0 galaxies. In the quest to understand whether the formation of S0 galaxies is more closely linked to that of ellipticals or that of spirals, our goal is to compare the amount of their specific angular momentum as a function of stellar mass with respect to spirals. Through kinematic comparison between these different classes of galaxies we aim to understand if a scenario of passive evolution, in which the galaxy’s gas is consumed and the star formation is quenched, can be considered as plausible mechanism to explain the transformation from spirals to S0s. In order to derive the structural and photometric parameters of galaxy sub-components we performed a bulge-disc decomposition of optical images using GALFIT. The stellar kinematic of the galaxies was measured using integral field spectroscopic data from CALIFA survey. The development of new original software, based on a Monte Carlo Markov Chain algorithm, allowed us to obtain the values of the line of sight velocity and velocity dispersion of disc and bulge components. The result that we obtained is that S0 discs have a distribution of stellar specific angular momentum that is in full agreement with that of spiral discs, so the mechanism of simple fading can be considered as one of the most important for transformation from spirals to S0s.

HI aperture synthesis and optical observations of the pair of galaxies NGC 6907 and 6908

NGC 6908, an S0 galaxy situated in the direction of NGC 6907, was only recently recognized as a distinct galaxy, instead of only a part of NGC 6907. We present 21-cm radio synthesis observations obtained with the Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (GMRT) and optical images and spectroscopy obtained with the Gemini-North telescope of this pair of interacting galaxies. From the radio observations, we obtained the velocity field and the H I column density map of the whole region containing the NGC 6907/8 pair, and by means of the Gemini multi-object spectroscopy we obtained high-quality photometric images and 5 angstrom resolution spectra sampling the two galaxies. By comparing the rotation curve of NGC 6907 obtained from the two opposite sides around the main kinematic axis, we were able to distinguish the normal rotational velocity field from the velocity components produced by the interaction between the two galaxies. Taking into account the rotational velocity of NGC 6907 and the velocity derived from the absorption lines for NGC 6908, we verified that the relative velocity between these systems is lower than 60 km s(-1). The emission lines observed in the direction of NGC 6908, not typical of S0 galaxies, have the same velocity expected for the NGC 6907 rotation curve. Some emission lines are superimposed on a broader absorption profile, which suggests that they were not formed in NGC 6908. Finally, the H I profile exhibits details of the interaction, showing three components: one for NGC 6908, another for the excited gas in the NGC 6907 disc and a last one for the gas with higher relative velocities left behind NGC 6908 by dynamical friction, used to estimate the time when the interaction started in (3.4 +/- 0.6) x 10(7) yr ago.

The ionized gas in the CALIFA early-type galaxies I. Mapping two representative cases: NGC 6762 and NGC 5966

As part of the ongoing CALIFA survey, we have conducted a thorough bidimensional analysis of the ionized gas in two E/S0 galaxies, NGC 6762 and NGC 5966, aiming to shed light on the nature of their warm ionized ISM. Specifically, we present optical (3745–7300 Å) integral field spectroscopy obtained with the PMAS/PPAK integral field spectrophotometer. Its wide field-of-view (1′ × 1′) covers the entire optical extent of each galaxy down to faint continuum surface brightnesses. To recover the nebular lines, we modeled and subtracted the underlying stellar continuum from the observed spectra using the STARLIGHT spectral synthesis code. The pure emission-line spectra were used to investigate the gas properties and determine the possible sources of ionization. We show the advantages of IFU data in interpreting the complex nature of the ionized gas in NGC 6762 and NGC 5966. In NGC 6762, the ionized gas and stellar emission display similar morphologies, while the emission line morphology is elongated in NGC 5966, spanning ~6 kpc, and is oriented roughly orthogonal to the major axis of the stellar continuum ellipsoid. Whereas gas and stars are kinematically aligned in NGC 6762, the gas is kinematically decoupled from the stars in NGC 5966. A decoupled rotating disk or an “ionization cone” are two possible interpretations of the elongated ionized gas structure in NGC 5966. The latter would be the first “ionization cone” of such a dimension detected within a weak emission-line galaxy. Both galaxies have weak emission-lines relative to the continuum[EW(Hα) ≲ 3 Å] and have very low excitation, log([OIII]λ5007/Hβ) ≲ 0.5. Based on optical diagnostic ratios ([OIII]λ5007/Hβ, [NII]λ6584/Hα, [SII]λ6717, 6731/Hα, [OI]λ6300/Hα), both objects contain a LINER nucleus and an extended LINER-like gas emission. The emission line ratios do not vary significantly with radius or aperture, which indicates that the nebular properties are spatially homogeneous. The gas emission in NGC 6762 can be best explained by photoionization by pAGB stars without the need of invoking any other excitation mechanism. In the case of NGC 5966, the presence of a nuclear ionizing source seems to be required to shape the elongated gas emission feature in the “ionization cone” scenario, although ionization by pAGB stars cannot be ruled out. Further study of this object is needed to clarify the nature of its elongated gas structure.

The slowing down of galaxy disks in dissipationless minor mergers

We have investigated the impact of dissipationless minor galaxy mergers on the angular momentum of the remnant. Our simulations cover a range of initial orbital characteristics, and the system consists of a massive galaxy with a bulge and disk merging with a much less massive (one-tenth or one-twentieth) gasless companion that has a variety of morphologies (disk-or elliptical-like) and central baryonic mass concentrations. During the process of merging, the orbital angular momentum is redistributed into the internal angular momentum of the final system; the internal angular momentum of the primary galaxy can increase or decrease depending on the relative orientation of the orbital spin vectors (direct or retrograde), while the initially nonrotating dark matter halo always gains angular momentum. The specific angular momentum of the stellar component always decreases independently of the orbital parameters or morphology of the satellite, the decrease in the rotation velocity of the primary galaxy is accompanied by a change in the anisotropy of the orbits, and the ratio of rotation speed to velocity dispersion of the merger remnant is lower than the initial value, not only because of an increase in the dispersion but also of the slowing-down of the disk rotation. We briefly discuss several astrophysical implications of these results, suggesting that minor mergers do not cause a "random walk" process of the angular momentum of the stellar disk component of galaxies, but rather a steady decrease. Minor mergers may play a role in producing the large scatter observed in the Tully-Fisher relation for S0 galaxies, as well as in the increase of the velocity dispersion and the decrease in upsilon/sigma at large radii as observed in S0 galaxies.

At the vigintennial of the Butcher-Oemler effect

In their study of the evolution of galaxies within clusters, Butcher and Oemler discovered evidence for a strong evolution in star-formation rate with redshift. Later studies confirmed this conclusion and uncovered several aspects of the effect: photometric, spectroscopic, and morphological. This article reviews a broad sample of these works and discusses selection effects, biases, and driving mechanisms that might be responsible for the changes in star-formation rate.

The Las Campanas/Anglo-Australian Telescope Rich Cluster Survey - III. Spectroscopic studies of X-ray bright galaxy clusters at z similar to 0.1

We present the analysis of the spectroscopic and photometric catalogues of 11 X-ray luminous clusters at 0.07 < z < 0.16 from the Las Campanas/Anglo-Australian Telescope Rich Cluster Survey. Our spectroscopic data set consists of over 1600 galaxy cluster members, of which two-thirds are outside r(200). These spectra allow us to assign cluster membership using a detailed mass model and expand on our previous work on the cluster colour-magnitude relation ( CMR) where membership was inferred statistically. We confirm that the modal colours of galaxies on the CMR become progressively bluer with increasing radius d( B - R)/dr(p) = - 0.011 +/- 0.003 and with decreasing local galaxy density d( B - R)/dlog ( Sigma)= - 0.062 +/- 0.009. Interpreted as an age effect, we hypothesize that these trends in galaxy colour should be reflected in mean H delta equivalent width. We confirm that passive galaxies in the cluster increase in Hd line strength as dH delta/dr(p) = 0.35 +/- 0.06. Therefore, those galaxies in the cluster outskirts may have younger luminosity-weighted stellar populations; up to 3 Gyr younger than those in the cluster centre assuming d( B - R)/dt = 0.03 mag per Gyr. A variation of star formation rate, as measured by [ O II]lambda 3727 angstrom, with increasing local density of the environment is discernible and is shown to be in broad agreement with previous studies from the 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey and the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. We divide our spectra into a variety of types based upon the MORPHs classification scheme. We find that clusters at z similar to 0.1 are less active than their higher-redshift analogues: about 60 per cent of the cluster galaxy population is non-star forming, with a further 20 per cent in the post-starburst class and 20 per cent in the currently active class, demonstrating that evolution is visible within the past 2 - 3 Gyr. We also investigate unusual populations of blue and very red non-star forming galaxies and we suggest that the former are likely to be the progenitors of galaxies which will lie on the CMR, while the colours of the latter possibly reflect dust reddening. We show that the cluster galaxies at large radii consist of both backsplash ones and those that are infalling to the cluster for the first time. We make a comparison to the field population at z similar to 0.1 and examine the broad differences between the two populations. Individually, the clusters show significant variation in their galaxy populations which we suggest reflects their recent infall histories.

Global properties of `ordinary` early-type galaxies: photometry and spectroscopy of stars and globular clusters in NGC 4494

We present a comprehensive analysis of the spatial, kinematic and chemical properties of stars and globular clusters (GCs) in the `ordinary` elliptical galaxy NGC 4494 using data from the Keck and Subaru telescopes. We derive galaxy surface brightness and colour profiles out to large galactocentric radii. We compare the latter to metallicities derived using the near-infrared Calcium Triplet. We obtain stellar kinematics out to similar to 3.5 effective radii. The latter appear flattened or elongated beyond similar to 1.8 effective radii in contrast to the relatively round photometric isophotes. In fact, NGC 4494 may be a flattened galaxy, possibly even an S0, seen at an inclination of similar to 45 degrees. We publish a catalogue of 431 GC candidates brighter than i(0) = 24 based on the photometry, of which 109 are confirmed spectroscopically and 54 have measured spectroscopic metallicities. We also report the discovery of three spectroscopically confirmed ultra-compact dwarfs around NGC 4494 with measured metallicities of -0.4 less than or similar to [Fe/H] less than or similar to -0.3. Based on their properties, we conclude that they are simply bright GCs. The metal-poor GCs are found to be rotating with similar amplitude as the galaxy stars, while the metal-rich GCs show marginal rotation. We supplement our analysis with available literature data and results. Using model predictions of galaxy formation, and a suite of merger simulations, we find that many of the observational properties of NGC 4494 may be explained by formation in a relatively recent gas-rich major merger. Complete studies of individual galaxies incorporating a range of observational avenues and methods such as the one presented here will be an invaluable tool for constraining the fine details of galaxy formation models, especially at large galactocentric radii.

The survey for ionization in neutral gas galaxies. I. Description and initial results

We introduce the Survey for Ionization in Neutral Gas Galaxies (SINGG), a census of star formation in H I selected galaxies. The survey consists of H alpha and R-band imaging of a sample of 468 galaxies selected from the H I Parkes All Sky Survey (HIPASS). The sample spans three decades in H I mass and is free of many of the biases that affect other star-forming galaxy samples. We present the criteria for sample selection, list the entire sample, discuss our observational techniques, and describe the data reduction and calibration methods. This paper focuses on 93 SINGG targets whose observations have been fully reduced and analyzed to date. The majority of these show a single emission line galaxy (ELG). We see multiple ELGs in 13 fields, with up to four ELGs in a single field. All of the targets in this sample are detected in H alpha, indicating that dormant (non-star-forming) galaxies with M-H I greater than or similar to 3x10(7) M-circle dot are very rare. A database of the measured global properties of the ELGs is presented. The ELG sample spans 4 orders of magnitude in luminosity (H alpha and R band), and H alpha surface brightness, nearly 3 orders of magnitude in R surface brightness and nearly 2 orders of magnitude in H alpha equivalent width (EW). The surface brightness distribution of our sample is broader than that of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) spectroscopic sample, the EW distribution is broader than prism-selected samples, and the morphologies found include all common types of star-forming galaxies (e.g., irregular, spiral, blue compact dwarf, starbursts, merging and colliding systems, and even residual star formation in S0 and Sa spirals). Thus, SINGG presents a superior census of star formation in the local universe suitable for further studies ranging from the analysis of H II regions to determination of the local cosmic star formation rate density.

Lopsided spiral galaxies

The light distribution in the disks of many galaxies is ‘lopsided’ with a spatial extent much larger along one half of a galaxy than the other, as seen in M101. Recent observations show that the stellar disk in a typical spiral galaxy is significantly lopsided, indicating asymmetry in the disk mass distribution. The mean amplitude of lopsidedness is 0.1, measured as the Fourier amplitude of the m=1 component normalized to the average value. Thus, lopsidedness is common, and hence it is important to understand its origin and dynamics. This is a new and exciting area in galactic structure and dynamics, in contrast to the topic of bars and two-armed spirals (m=2) which has been extensively studied in the literature. Lopsidedness is ubiquitous and occurs in a variety of settings and tracers. It is seen in both stars and gas, in the outer disk and the central region, in the field and the group galaxies. The lopsided amplitude is higher by a factor of two for galaxies in a group. The lopsidedness has a strong impact on the dynamics of the galaxy, its evolution, the star formation in it, and on the growth of the central black hole and on the nuclear fuelling. We present here an overview of the observations that measure the lopsided distribution, as well as the theoretical progress made so far to understand its origin and properties. The physical mechanisms studied for its origin include tidal encounters, gas accretion and a global gravitational instability. The related open, challenging problems in this emerging area are discussed.

Contribution from normal and starburst galaxies to the extragalactic gamma-ray background (EGRB)

The extragalactic diffuse emission at gamma-ray energies has interesting cosmological implications since these photons suffer little or no attenuation during their propagation from the site of origin. The emission could originate from either truly diffuse processes or from unresolved point sources such as AGNs, normal galaxies and starburst galaxies. Here, we examine the unresolved point source origin of the extragalactic gamma-ray background emission from normal galaxies and starburst galaxies. gamma-ray emission from normal galaxies is primarily coming from cosmic-ray interactions with interstellar matter and radiation (similar to 90%) along with a small contribution from discrete point sources (similar to 10%). Starburst galaxies are expected to have enhanced supernovae activity which leads to higher cosmic-ray densities, making starburst galaxies sufficiently luminous at gamma-ray energies to be detected by the current gamma-ray mission(Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope).

The onset of warps in Spitzer observations of edge-on spiral galaxies

We analyse warps in the nearby edge-on spiral galaxies observed in the Spitzer/Infrared Array Camera (IRAC)4.5-mu m band. In our sample of 24 galaxies, we find evidence of warp in 14 galaxies. We estimate the observed onset radii for the warps in a subsample of 10 galaxies. The dark matter distribution in each of these galaxies are calculated using the mass distribution derived from the observed light distribution and the observed rotation curves. The theoretical predictions of the onset radii for the warps are then derived by applying a self-consistent linear response theory to the obtained mass models for six galaxies with rotation curves in the literature. By comparing the observed onset radii to the theoretical ones, we find that discs with constant thickness can not explain the observations; moderately flaring discs are needed. The required flaring is consistent with the observations. Our analysis shows that the onset of warp is not symmetric in our sample of galaxies. We define a new quantity called the onset-asymmetry index and study its dependence on galaxy properties. The onset asymmetries in warps tend to be larger in galaxies with smaller dis scalelengths. We also define and quantify the global asymmetry in the stellar light distribution, that we call the edge-on asymmetry in edge-on galaxies. It is shown that in most cases the onset asymmetry in warp is actually anticorrelated with the measured edge-on asymmetry in our sample of edge-on galaxies and this could plausibly indicate that the surrounding dark matter distribution is asymmetric.

Generation of rotationally dominated galaxies by mergers of pressure-supported progenitors

Through the analysis of a set of numerical simulations of major mergers between initially non-rotating, pressure-supported progenitor galaxies with a range of central mass concentrations, we have shown that: (1) it is possible to generate elliptical-like galaxies, with outside one effective radius, as a result of the conversion of orbital- into internal-angular momentum; (2) the outer regions acquire part of the angular momentum first; (3) both the baryonic and the dark matter components of the remnant galaxy acquire part of the angular momentum, the relative fractions depending on the initial concentration of the merging galaxies. For this conversion to occur the initial baryonic component must be sufficiently dense and/or the encounter should take place on an orbit with high angular momentum. Systems with these hybrid properties have recently been observed through a combination of stellar absorption lines and planetary nebulae for kinematic studies of early-type galaxies. Our results are in qualitative agreement with these observations and demonstrate that even mergers composed of non rotating, pressure-supported progenitor galaxies can produce early-type galaxies with significant rotation at large radii.

An HI study of three long-tailed irregular galaxies in the cluster Abell 1367

We present the results on the distribution and kinematics of HI gas with higher sensitivity and in one case of higher spectral resolution as well than reported earlier, of three irregular galaxies CGCG 097073, 097079 and 097087 (UGC 06697) in the cluster Abell 1367. These galaxies are known to exhibit long (50 - 75 kpc) tails of radio continuum and optical emission lines (H alpha) pointing away from the cluster centre and arcs of starformation on the opposite sides of the tails, These features as well as the HI properties, with two of the galaxies (CGCG 097073 and 097079) exhibiting sharper gradients in HI intensity on the side of the tails, are consistent with the HI gas being affected by the ram pressure of the intracluster medium. However the HI emission in all the three galaxies extends to much smaller distances than the radio-continuum and H alpha tails, and are possibly still bound to the parent galaxies. Approximately 20 - 30 per cent of the HI mass is seen to accumulate on the downstream side due to the effects of ram pressure.