Positional Preferences of Polypurine/Polypyrimidine Tracts in Saccharomyces cerevisiae Genome: Implications for cis Regulation of Gene Expression

The complete genome of the baker's yeast S. cerevisiae was analyzed for the presence of polypurine/polypyrimidine (poly[pu/py]) repeats and their occurrences were classified on the basis of their location within and outside open reading frames (ORFs). The analysis reveals that such sequence motifs are present abundantly both in coding as well as noncoding regions. Clear positional preferences are seen when these tracts occur in noncoding regions. These motifs appear to occur predominantly at a unit nucleosomal length both upstream and downstream of ORFs. Moreover, there is a biased distribution of polypurines in the coding strands when these motifs occur within open reading frames. The significance of the biased distribution is discussed with reference to the occurrence of these motifs in other known mRNA sequences and expressed sequence tags. A model for cis regulation of gene expression is proposed based on the ability of these motifs to form an intermolecular triple helix structure when present within the coding region and/or to modulate nucleosome positioning via enhanced histone affinity when present outside coding regions.

A novel approach to design of cis-acting DNA structural element for regulation of gene expression in vivo

Taking advantage of the degeneracy of the genetic code we have developed a novel approach to introduce, within a gene, DNA sequences capable of adopting unusual structures and to investigate the role of such sequences in regulation of gene expression in vivo. We used a computer program that generates alternative codon sequences for the same amino-acid sequence to convert a stretch of nucleotides into an inverted-repeat sequence with the potential to adopt cruciform structure. This approach was used to replace a 51-base-pair EcoRI-HindIII segment in the N-terminal region of the beta-galactosidase gene in plasmid pUC19 with a 51-bp synthetic oligonucleotide sequence with the potential to adopt a cruciform structure with 18 bp in the stem region. In selecting the 51-bp sequence, care was taken to include those codons that are preferred in E. coli. E. coli DH5-alpha cells harbouring the plasmid containing the redesigned sequence showed drastic reduction in expression of the beta-galactosidase gene compared to cells harbouring the plasmid with the native sequence. This approach demonstrates the possibility of introducing DNA secondary-structure elements to alter regulation of gene expression in vivo.

Cell-targeted regulation of gene expression through synthetic RNA devices

The ability to interface with and program cellular function remains a challenging research frontier in biotechnology. Although the emerging field of synthetic biology has recently generated a variety of gene-regulatory strategies based on synthetic RNA molecules, few strategies exist through which to control such regulatory effects in response to specific exogenous or endogenous molecular signals. Here, we present the development of an engineered RNA-based device platform to detect and act on endogenous protein signals, linking these signals to the regulation of genes and thus cellular function.

We describe efforts to develop an RNA-based device framework for regulating endogenous genes in human cells. Previously developed RNA control devices have demonstrated programmable ligand-responsive genetic regulation in diverse cell types, and we attempted to adapt this class of cis-acting control elements to function in trans. We divided the device into two strands that reconstitute activity upon hybridization. Device function was optimized using an in vivo model system, and we found that device sequence is not as flexible as previously reported. After verifying the in vitro activity of our optimized design, we attempted to establish gene regulation in a human cell line using additional elements to direct device stability, structure, and localization. The significant limitations of our platform prevented endogenous gene regulation.

We next describe the development of a protein-responsive RNA-based regulatory platform. Employing various design strategies, we demonstrated functional devices that both up- and downregulate gene expression in response to a heterologous protein in a human cell line. The activity of our platform exceeded that of a similar, small-molecule-responsive platform. We demonstrated the ability of our devices to respond to both cytoplasmic- and nuclear-localized protein, providing insight into the mechanism of action and distinguishing our platform from previously described devices with more restrictive ligand localization requirements. Finally, we demonstrated the versatility of our device platform by developing a regulatory device that responds to an endogenous signaling protein.

The foundational tool we present here possesses unique advantages over previously described RNA-based gene-regulatory platforms. This genetically encoded technology may find future applications in the development of more effective diagnostic tools and targeted molecular therapy strategies.

Molecular coordinated regulation of gene expression during ovarian development in the penaeid shrimp

To understand the molecular events of ovarian development in penaeid shrimp, RNA arbitrarily primed polymerase chain reaction (RAP-PCR) was used to identify differentially expressed genes during ovarian maturation in Metapenaeus ensis. From a screening of 700 clones in a cDNA library of the shrimp ovary by the products of RAP-PCR of different maturation stages, 91 fragments with differentially expressed pattern as revealed by dot-blot hybridization were isolated and sequenced. Forty-two of these fragments show significant sequence similarity to known gene products and the differentially expressed pattern of 10 putative genes were further characterized via Northern hybridization. Putative glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and arginine kinase are related to provision of energy for active cellular function in oocyte development. Translationally controlled tumor protein, actin, and keratin are related to the organization of cytoskeleton to accomplish growth and development of oocytes. High mobility group protein DSP1, heat shock protein 70, and nucleoside diphosphate kinase may act as repressors before the onset of ovarian maturation. Peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase and glutathione peroxidase are related to the stabilization of proteins and oocytes. This study provides new insights on the molecular events in the ovarian development in the shrimp.

Regulation of gene expression by SnRK1 kinases and miRNAs during the plant stress response

Dissertation presented to obtain the Ph.D degree in Plant Physiology

Regulation of gene expression in the dinoflagellate Lingulodinium polyedrum

Les dinoflagellés sont des eucaryotes unicellulaires que l’on retrouve autant en eau douce qu’en milieu marin. Ils sont particulièrement connus pour causer des fleurs d’algues toxiques nommées ‘marée-rouge’, ainsi que pour leur symbiose avec les coraux et pour leur importante contribution à la fixation du carbone dans les océans. Au point de vue moléculaire, ils sont aussi connus pour leur caractéristiques nucléaires uniques, car on retrouve généralement une quantité immense d’ADN dans leurs chromosomes et ceux-ci sont empaquetés et condensés sous une forme cristalline liquide au lieu de nucléosomes. Les gènes encodés par le noyau sont souvent présents en multiples copies et arrangés en tandem et aucun élément de régulation transcriptionnelle, y compris la boite TATA, n’a encore été observé. L’organisation unique de la chromatine des dinoflagellés suggère que différentes stratégies sont nécessaires pour contrôler l’expression des gènes de ces organismes. Dans cette étude, j’ai abordé ce problème en utilisant le dinoflagellé photosynthétique Lingulodinium polyedrum comme modèle. L. polyedrum est d’un intérêt particulier, car il a plusieurs rythmes circadiens (journalier). À ce jour, toutes les études sur l’expression des gènes lors des changements circadiens ont démontrées une régulation à un niveau traductionnel. Pour mes recherches, j’ai utilisé les approches transcriptomique, protéomique et phosphoprotéomique ainsi que des études biochimiques pour donner un aperçu de la mécanique de la régulation des gènes des dinoflagellés, ceci en mettant l’accent sur l’importance de la phosphorylation du système circadien de L. polyedrum. L’absence des protéines histones et des nucléosomes est une particularité des dinoflagellés. En utilisant la technologie RNA-Seq, j’ai trouvé des séquences complètes encodant des histones et des enzymes modifiant les histones. L polyedrum exprime donc des séquences conservées codantes pour les histones, mais le niveau d’expression protéique est plus faible que les limites de détection par immunodétection de type Western. Les données de séquençage RNA-Seq ont également été utilisées pour générer un transcriptome, qui est une liste des gènes exprimés par L. polyedrum. Une recherche par homologie de séquences a d’abord été effectuée pour classifier les transcrits en diverses catégories (Gene Ontology; GO). Cette analyse a révélé une faible abondance des facteurs de transcription et une surprenante prédominance, parmi ceux-ci, des séquences à domaine Cold Shock. Chez L. polyedrum, plusieurs gènes sont répétés en tandem. Un alignement des séquences obtenues par RNA-Seq avec les copies génomiques de gènes organisés en tandem a été réalisé pour examiner la présence de transcrits polycistroniques, une hypothèse formulée pour expliquer le manque d’élément promoteur dans la région intergénique de la séquence de ces gènes. Cette analyse a également démontré une très haute conservation des séquences codantes des gènes organisés en tandem. Le transcriptome a également été utilisé pour aider à l’identification de protéines après leur séquençage par spectrométrie de masse, et une fraction enrichie en phosphoprotéines a été déterminée comme particulièrement bien adapté aux approches d’analyse à haut débit. La comparaison des phosphoprotéomes provenant de deux périodes différentes de la journée a révélée qu’une grande partie des protéines pour lesquelles l’état de phosphorylation varie avec le temps est reliées aux catégories de liaison à l’ARN et de la traduction. Le transcriptome a aussi été utilisé pour définir le spectre des kinases présentes chez L. polyedrum, qui a ensuite été utilisé pour classifier les différents peptides phosphorylés qui sont potentiellement les cibles de ces kinases. Plusieurs peptides identifiés comme étant phosphorylés par la Casein Kinase 2 (CK2), une kinase connue pour être impliquée dans l’horloge circadienne des eucaryotes, proviennent de diverses protéines de liaison à l’ARN. Pour évaluer la possibilité que quelques-unes des multiples protéines à domaine Cold Shock identifiées dans le transcriptome puissent moduler l’expression des gènes de L. polyedrum, tel qu’observé chez plusieurs autres systèmes procaryotiques et eucaryotiques, la réponse des cellules à des températures froides a été examinée. Les températures froides ont permis d’induire rapidement un enkystement, condition dans laquelle ces cellules deviennent métaboliquement inactives afin de résister aux conditions environnementales défavorables. Les changements dans le profil des phosphoprotéines seraient le facteur majeur causant la formation de kystes. Les phosphosites prédits pour être phosphorylés par la CK2 sont la classe la plus fortement réduite dans les kystes, une découverte intéressante, car le rythme de la bioluminescence confirme que l’horloge a été arrêtée dans le kyste.

Nuclear organisation and epigenetic regulation of gene expression in Dictyostelium discoideum

A series of vectors for the over-expression of tagged proteins in Dictyostelium were designed, constructed and tested. These vectors allow the addition of an N- or C-terminal tag (GFP, RFP, 3xFLAG, 3xHA, 6xMYC and TAP) with an optimized polylinker sequence and no additional amino acid residues at the N or C terminus. Different selectable markers (Blasticidin and gentamicin) are available as well as an extra chromosomal version; these allow copy number and thus expression level to be controlled, as well as allowing for more options with regard to complementation, co- and super-transformation. Finally, the vectors share standardized cloning sites, allowing a gene of interest to be easily transfered between the different versions of the vectors as experimental requirements evolve. The organisation and dynamics of the Dictyostelium nucleus during the cell cycle was investigated. The centromeric histone H3 (CenH3) variant serves to target the kinetochore to the centromeres and thus ensures correct chromosome segregation during mitosis and meiosis. A number of Dictyostelium histone H3-domain containing proteins as GFP-tagged fusions were expressed and it was found that one of them functions as CenH3 in this species. Like CenH3 from some other species, Dictyostelium CenH3 has an extended N-terminal domain with no similarity to any other known proteins. The targeting domain, comprising α-helix 2 and loop 1 of the histone fold is required for targeting CenH3 to centromeres. Compared to the targeting domain of other known and putative CenH3 species, Dictyostelium CenH3 has a shorter loop 1 region. The localisation of a variety of histone modifications and histone modifying enzymes was examined. Using fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) and CenH3 chromatin-immunoprecipitation (ChIP) it was shown that the six telocentric centromeres contain all of the DIRS-1 and most of the DDT-A and skipper transposons. During interphase the centromeres remain attached to the centrosome resulting in a single CenH3 cluster which also contains the putative histone H3K9 methyltransferase SuvA, H3K9me3 and HP1 (heterochromatin protein 1). Except for the centromere cluster and a number of small foci at the nuclear periphery opposite the centromeres, the rest of the nucleus is largely devoid of transposons and heterochromatin associated histone modifications. At least some of the small foci correspond to the distal telomeres, suggesting that the chromosomes are organised in a Rabl-like manner. It was found that in contrast to metazoans, loading of CenH3 onto Dictyostelium centromeres occurs in late G2 phase. Transformation of Dictyostelium with vectors carrying the G418 resistance cassette typically results in the vector integrating into the genome in one or a few tandem arrays of approximately a hundred copies. In contrast, plasmids containing a Blasticidin resistance cassette integrate as single or a few copies. The behaviour of transgenes in the nucleus was examined by FISH, and it was found that low copy transgenes show apparently random distribution within the nucleus, while transgenes with more than approximately 10 copies cluster at or immediately adjacent to the centromeres in interphase cells regardless of the actual integration site along the chromosome. During mitosis the transgenes show centromere-like behaviour, and ChIP experiments show that transgenes contain the heterochromatin marker H3K9me2 and the centromeric histone variant H3v1. This clustering, and centromere-like behaviour was not observed on extrachromosomal transgenes, nor on a line where the transgene had integrated into the extrachromosomal rDNA palindrome. This suggests that it is the repetitive nature of the transgenes that causes the centromere-like behaviour. A Dictyostelium homolog of DET1, a protein largely restricted to multicellular eukaryotes where it has a role in developmental regulation was identified. As in other species Dictyostelium DET1 is nuclear localised. In ChIP experiments DET1 was found to bind the promoters of a number of developmentally regulated loci. In contrast to other species where it is an essential protein, loss of DET1 is not lethal in Dictyostelium, although viability is greatly reduced. Loss of DET1 results in delayed and abnormal development with enlarged aggregation territories. Mutant slugs displayed apparent cell type patterning with a bias towards pre-stalk cell types.

Using U0126 to dissect the role of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) cascade in the regulation of gene expression by endothelin-1 in cardiac myocytes

The hypertrophic agonist endothelin-1 rapidly but transiently activates the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) cascade (and other signalling pathways) in cardiac myocytes, but the events linking this to hypertrophy are not understood. Using Affymetrix rat U34A microarrays, we identified the short-term (2-4 h) changes in gene expression induced in neonatal myocytes by endothelin-1 alone or in combination with the ERK1/2 cascade inhibitor, U0126. Expression of 15 genes was significantly changed by U0126 alone, and expression of an additional 78 genes was significantly changed by endothelin-1. Of the genes upregulated by U0126, four are classically induced through the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) by dioxins suggesting that U0126 activates the xenobiotic response element in cardiac myocytes potentially independently of effects on ERK1/2 signalling. The 78 genes showing altered expression with endothelin-1 formed five clusters: (i) three clusters showing upregulation by endothelin-1 according to time course (4 h > 2 h; 2 h > 4 h; 2 h approximately 4 h) with at least partial inhibition by U0126; (ii) a cluster of 11 genes upregulated by endothelin-1 but unaffected by U0126 suggesting regulation through signalling pathways other than ERK1/2; (iii) a cluster of six genes downregulated by endothelin-1 with attenuation by U0126. Thus, U0126 apparently activates the AhR in cardiac myocytes (which must be taken into account in protracted studies), but careful analysis allows identification of genes potentially regulated acutely via the ERK1/2 cascade. Our data suggest that the majority of changes in gene expression induced by endothelin-1 are mediated by the ERK1/2 cascade.

Interaction of Osmotic Stress, Temperature, and Abscisic Acid in the Regulation of Gene Expression in Arabidopsis

The impact of simultaneous environmental stresses on plants and how they respond to combined stresses compared with single stresses is largely unclear. By using a transgene (RD29A-LUC) consisting of the firefly luciferase coding sequence (LUC) driven by the stress-responsive RD29A promoter, we investigated the interactive effects of temperature, osmotic stress, and the phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA) in the regulation of gene expression in Arabidopsis seedlings. Results indicated that both positive and negative interactions exist among the studied stress factors in regulating gene expression. At a normal growth temperature (22°C), osmotic stress and ABA act synergistically to induce the transgene expression. Low temperature inhibits the response to osmotic stress or to combined treatment of osmotic stress and ABA, whereas low temperature and ABA treatments are additive in inducing transgene expression. Although high temperature alone does not activate the transgene, it significantly amplifies the effects of ABA and osmotic stress. The effect of multiple stresses in the regulation of RD29A-LUC expression in signal transduction mutants was also studied. The results are discussed in the context of cold and osmotic stress signal transduction pathways.

Stat1-independent regulation of gene expression in response to IFN-γ

Although Stat1 is essential for cells to respond fully to IFN-γ, there is substantial evidence that, in the absence of Stat1, IFN-γ can still regulate the expression of some genes, induce an antiviral state and affect cell growth. We have now identified many genes that are regulated by IFN-γ in serum-starved Stat1-null mouse fibroblasts. The proteins induced by IFN-γ in Stat1-null cells can account for the substantial biological responses that remain. Some genes are induced in both wild-type and Stat1-null cells and thus are truly Stat1-independent. Others are subject to more complex regulation in response to IFN-γ, repressed by Stat1 in wild-type cells and activated in Stat1-null cells. Many genes induced by IFN-γ in Stat1-null fibroblasts also are induced by platelet-derived growth factor in wild-type cells and thus are likely to be involved in cell proliferation. In mouse cells expressing the docking site mutant Y440F of human IFN-γ receptor subunit 1, the mouse Stat1 is not phosphorylated in response to human IFN-γ, but c-myc and c-jun are still induced, showing that the Stat1 docking site is not required for Stat1-independent signaling.

Estrogen and thyroid hormone interaction on regulation of gene expression.

Estrogen receptor (ER) and thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) are ligand-dependent nuclear transcription factors that can bind to an identical half-site, AGGTCA, of their cognate hormone response elements. By in vitro transfection analysis in CV-1 cells, we show that estrogen induction of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) activity in a construct containing a CAT reporter gene under the control of a minimal thymidine kinase (tk) promoter and a copy of the consensus ER response element was attenuated by cotransfection of TR alpha 1 plus triiodothyronine treatment. This inhibitory effect of TR was ligand-dependent and isoform-specific. Neither TR beta 1 nor TR beta 2 cotransfection inhibited estrogen-induced CAT activity, although both TR alpha and TR beta can bind to a consensus ER response element. Furthermore, cotransfection of a mutated TR alpha 1 that lacks binding to the AGGTCA sequence also inhibited the estrogen effect. Thus, the repression of estrogen action by liganded TR alpha 1 may involve protein-protein interactions although competition of ER and TR at the DNA level cannot be excluded. A similar inhibitory effect of liganded TR alpha 1 on estrogen induction of CAT activity was observed in a construct containing the preproenkephalin (PPE) promoter. A study in hypophysectomized female rats demonstrated that the estrogen-induced increase in PPE mRNA levels in the ventromedial hypothalamus was diminished by coadministration of triiodothyronine. These results suggest that ER and TR may interact to modulate estrogen-sensitive gene expression, such as for PPE, in the hypothalamus.