Neuropeptides in the posterodorsal medial amygdala modulate central cardiovascular reflex responses in awake male rats

The rat posterodorsal medial amygdala (MePD) links emotionally charged sensory stimuli to social behavior, and is part of the supramedullary control of the cardiovascular system. We studied the effects of microinjections of neuroactive peptides markedly found in the MePD, namely oxytocin (OT, 10 ng and 25 pg; n=6/group), somatostatin (SST, 1 and 0.05 μM; n=8 and 5, respectively), and angiotensin II (Ang II, 50 pmol and 50 fmol; n=7/group), on basal cardiovascular activity and on baroreflex- and chemoreflex-mediated responses in awake adult male rats. Power spectral and symbolic analyses were applied to pulse interval and systolic arterial pressure series to identify centrally mediated sympathetic/parasympathetic components in the heart rate variability (HRV) and arterial pressure variability (APV). No microinjected substance affected basal parameters. On the other hand, compared with the control data (saline, 0.3 µL; n=7), OT (10 ng) decreased mean AP (MAP50) after baroreflex stimulation and increased both the mean AP response after chemoreflex activation and the high-frequency component of the HRV. OT (25 pg) increased overall HRV but did not affect any parameter of the symbolic analysis. SST (1 μM) decreased MAP50, and SST (0.05 μM) enhanced the sympathovagal cardiac index. Both doses of SST increased HRV and its low-frequency component. Ang II (50 pmol) increased HRV and reduced the two unlike variations pattern of the symbolic analysis (P<0.05 in all cases). These results demonstrate neuropeptidergic actions in the MePD for both the increase in the range of the cardiovascular reflex responses and the involvement of the central sympathetic and parasympathetic systems on HRV and APV.

HISTAMINE IN THE POSTERODORSAL MEDIAL AMYGDALA MODULATES CARDIOVASCULAR REFLEX RESPONSES IN AWAKE RATS

Centrally injected histamine (HA) affects heart rate (HR), arterial blood pressure (BP), and sympathetic activity in rats. The posterodorsal medial amygdala (MePD) has high levels of histidine decarboxylase, connections with brain areas involved with the modulation of cardiovascular responses, and is relevant for the pathogenesis of hypertension. However, there is no report demonstrating the role of the MePD histaminergic activity on the cardiovascular function in awake rats. The alms of the present work were: 1) to study the effects of two doses (10-100 nM) of HA microinjected in the MePD on basal cardiovascular recordings and on baroreflex- and chemoreflex-mediated responses; 2) to reveal whether cardiovascular reflex responses could be affected by MePD microinjections of (R)-alpha-methylhistamine (AH(3)), an agonist of the inhibitory autoreceptor H(3); and, 3) to carry out a power spectral analysis to evaluate the contribution of the sympathetic and parasympathetic components in the variability of the HR and BP recordings. When compared with the control group (microinjected with saline, 0.3 mu l), HA (10 nM) promoted an increase in the MAP(50), i.e. the mean value of BP at half of the HR range evoked by the baroreflex response. Histamine (100 nM) did not affect the baroreflex activity, but significantly decreased the parasympathetic component of the HR variability, increased the sympathetic/parasympathetic balance at basal conditions (these two latter evaluated by the power spectral analysis), and promoted an impairment in the chemoreflex bradycardic response. Microinjection of AH(3) (10 mu M) led to mixed results, which resembled the effects of both doses of HA employed here. Present data suggest that cardiovascular changes induced by baroreceptors and chemoreceptors involve the histaminergic activity in the MePD. This neural regulation of reflex cardiovascular responses can have important implications for homeostatic and allostatic conditions and possibly for the behavioral displays modulated by the rat MePD. (C) 2008 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Hemodynamic responses to aortic depressor nerve stimulation in conscious L-NAME-induced hypertensive rats

Durand MT, Castania JA, Fazan R Jr, Salgado MC, Salgado HC. Hemodynamic responses to aortic depressor nerve stimulation in conscious L-NAME-induced hypertensive rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 300: R418-R427, 2011. First published November 24, 2010; doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.00463.2010.-The present study investigated whether baroreflex control of autonomic function is impaired when there is a deficiency in NO production and the role of adrenergic and cholinergic mechanisms in mediating reflex responses. Electrical stimulation of the aortic depressor nerve in conscious normotensive and nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME)-induced hypertensive rats was applied before and after administration of methylatropine, atenolol, and prazosin alone or in combination. The hypotensive response to progressive electrical stimulation (5 to 90 Hz) was greater in hypertensive (-27 +/- 2 to -64 +/- 3 mmHg) than in normotensive rats (-17 +/- 1 to -46 +/- 2 mmHg), whereas the bradycardic response was similar in both groups (-34 +/- 5 to -92 +/- 9 and -21 +/- 2 to -79 +/- 7 beats/min, respectively). Methylatropine and atenolol showed no effect in the hypotensive response in either group. Methylatropine blunted the bradycardic response in both groups, whereas atenolol attenuated only in hypertensive rats. Prazosin blunted the hypotensive response in both normotensive (43%) and hypertensive rats (53%) but did not affect the bradycardic response in either group. Prazosin plus angiotensin II, used to restore basal arterial pressure, provided hemodynamic responses similar to those of prazosin alone. The triple pharmacological blockade abolished the bradycardic response in both groups but displayed similar residual hypotensive response in hypertensive (-13 +/- 2 to -27 +/- 2 mmHg) and normotensive rats (-10 +/- 1 to -25 +/- 3 mmHg). In conclusion, electrical stimulation produced a well-preserved baroreflex-mediated decrease in arterial pressure and heart rate in conscious L-NAME-induced hypertensive rats. Moreover, withdrawal of the sympathetic drive played a role in the reflex bradycardia only in hypertensive rats. The residual fall in pressure after the triple pharmacological blockade suggests the involvement of a vasodilatory mechanism unrelated to NO or deactivation of alpha(1)-adrenergic receptor.

Trunk neuromuscular responses to a single whole-body vibration session in patients with chronic low back pain: a cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: Whole-body vibration (WBV) exercise is progressively adopted as an alternative therapeutic modality for enhancing muscle force and muscle activity via neurogenic potentiation. So far, possible changes in the recruitment patterns of the trunk musculature after WBV remain undetermined. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the short-term effects of a single WBV session on trunk neuromuscular responses in patients with chronic low back pain (cLBP) and healthy participants. METHODS: Twenty patients with cLBP and 21 healthy participants performed 10 trunk flexion-extensions before and after a single WBV session consisting of five 1-minute vibration sets. Surface electromyography (EMG) of erector spinae at L2-L3 and L4-L5 and lumbopelvic kinematic variables were collected during the trials. Data were analyzed using 2-way mixed analysis of variance models. RESULTS: The WBV session led to increased lumbar EMG activity during the flexion and extension phases but yielded no change in the quiet standing and fully flexed phases. Kinematic data showed a decreased contribution to the movement of the lumbar region in the second extension quartile. These effects were not different between patients with cLBP and healthy participants. CONCLUSIONS: Increased lumbar EMG activity after a single WBV session most probably results from potentiation effects of WBV on lumbar muscles reflex responses. Decreased EMG activity in full trunk flexion, usually observed in healthy individuals, was still present after WBV, suggesting that the ability of the spine stabilizing mechanisms to transfer the extension torque from muscles to passive structures was not affected.

Differentiation of autonomic reflex control begins with cellular mechanisms at the first synapse within the nucleus tractus solitarius

Visceral afferents send information via cranial nerves to the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS). The NTS is the initial step of information processing that culminates in homeostatic reflex responses. Recent evidence suggests that strong afferent synaptic responses in the NTS are most often modulated by depression and this forms a basic principle of central integration of these autonomic pathways. The visceral afferent synapse is uncommonly powerful at the NTS with large unitary response amplitudes and depression rather than facilitation at moderate to high frequencies of activation. Substantial signal depression occurs through multiple mechanisms at this very first brainstem synapse onto second order NTS neurons. This review highlights new approaches to the study of these basic processes featuring patch clamp recordings in NTS brain slices and optical techniques with fluorescent tracers. The vanilloid receptor agonist, capsaicin, distinguishes two classes of second order neurons (capsaicin sensitive or capsaicin resistant) that appear to reflect unmyelinated and myelinated afferent pathways. The differences in cellular properties of these two classes of NTS neurons indicate clear functional differentiation at both the pre- and postsynaptic portions of these first synapses. By virtue of their position at the earliest stage of these pathways, such mechanistic differences probably impart important differentiation in the performance over the entire reflex pathways.

The bradycardic and hypotensive responses to serotonin are reduced by activation of GABA A receptors in the nucleus tractus solitarius of awake rats

We investigated the effects of bilateral injections of the GABA receptor agonists muscimol (GABA A) and baclofen (GABA B) into the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) on the bradycardia and hypotension induced by iv serotonin injections (5-HT, 2 µg/rat) in awake male Holtzman rats. 5-HT was injected in rats with stainless steel cannulas implanted bilaterally in the NTS, before and 5, 15, and 60 min after bilateral injections of muscimol or baclofen into the NTS. The responses to 5-HT were tested before and after the injection of atropine methyl bromide. Muscimol (50 pmol/50 nl, N = 8) into the NTS increased basal mean arterial pressure (MAP) from 115 ± 4 to 144 ± 6 mmHg, did not change basal heart rate (HR) and reduced the bradycardia (-40 ± 14 and -73 ± 26 bpm at 5 and 15 min, respectively, vs -180 ± 20 bpm for the control) and hypotension (-11 ± 4 and -14 ± 4 mmHg, vs -40 ± 9 mmHg for the control) elicited by 5-HT. Baclofen (12.5 pmol/50 nl, N = 7) into the NTS also increased basal MAP, but did not change basal HR, bradycardia or hypotension in response to 5-HT injections. Atropine methyl bromide (1 mg/kg body weight) injected iv reduced the bradycardic and hypotensive responses to 5-HT injections. The stimulation of GABA A receptors in the NTS of awake rats elicits a significant increase in basal MAP and decreases the cardiac Bezold-Jarisch reflex responses to iv 5-HT injections.

The bradycardic and hypotensive responses to serotonin are reduced by activation of GABA A receptors in the nucleus tractus solitarius of awake rats

We investigated the effects of bilateral injections of the GABA receptor agonists muscimol (GABA A) and baclofen (GABA B) into the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) on the bradycardia and hypotension induced by iv serotonin injections (5-HT, 2 µg/rat) in awake male Holtzman rats. 5-HT was injected in rats with stainless steel cannulas implanted bilaterally in the NTS, before and 5, 15, and 60 min after bilateral injections of muscimol or baclofen into the NTS. The responses to 5-HT were tested before and after the injection of atropine methyl bromide. Muscimol (50 pmol/50 nl, N = 8) into the NTS increased basal mean arterial pressure (MAP) from 115 ± 4 to 144 ± 6 mmHg, did not change basal heart rate (HR) and reduced the bradycardia (-40 ± 14 and -73 ± 26 bpm at 5 and 15 min, respectively, vs -180 ± 20 bpm for the control) and hypotension (-11 ± 4 and -14 ± 4 mmHg, vs -40 ± 9 mmHg for the control) elicited by 5-HT. Baclofen (12.5 pmol/50 nl, N = 7) into the NTS also increased basal MAP, but did not change basal HR, bradycardia or hypotension in response to 5-HT injections. Atropine methyl bromide (1 mg/kg body weight) injected iv reduced the bradycardic and hypotensive responses to 5-HT injections. The stimulation of GABA A receptors in the NTS of awake rats elicits a significant increase in basal MAP and decreases the cardiac Bezold-Jarisch reflex responses to iv 5-HT injections.

Commissural NTS contributes to pressor responses to glutamate injected into the medial NTS of awake rats

In the present study we investigated whether interruption of the chemoreceptor reflex by an electrolytic lesion of the commissural subnucleus of the nucleus tractus solitarii (commNTS) influenced presser and bradycardic responses induced by microinjection of L-glutamate (L-Glu) into the medial NTS (mNTS) of conscious rats. Seven days after sham lesions, seven rats demonstrated significant presser [change in mean arterial pressure (MAP) = +33 +/- 3 mmHg] and bradycardic [change in heart rate (HR) = -74 +/- 8 beats/min (bpm)] responses to chemoreceptor reflex activation by intravenous injection of KCN. Likewise, L-Glu (1 nmol in 100 nl) injected into the mNTS in sham rats induced presser (+29 +/- 2 mmHg) and bradycardic responses (-90 +/- 8 bpm). However, in 11 rats with lesions in commNTS, presser and bradycardic chemoreceptor reflex responses were abolished, and injection of L-Glu into the mNTS decreased MAP (-14 +/- 6 mmHg) and HR (-59 +/- 16 bpm) as is reported in anesthetized control rats. We conclude that presser responses induced by L-Glu microinjected into the baroreceptor reflex region of mNTS in conscious rats depend on the integrity of the commNTS, which plays an important role in central chemoreceptor reflex pathways.

Evaluation of administration of isoflurane at approximately the minimum alveolar concentration on depression of a nociceptive withdrawal reflex evoked by transcutaneous electrical stimulation in ponies

OBJECTIVE: To investigate effects of isoflurane at approximately the minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) on the nociceptive withdrawal reflex (NWR) of the forelimb of ponies as a method for quantifying anesthetic potency. ANIMALS: 7 healthy adult Shetland ponies. PROCEDURE: Individual MAC (iMAC) for isoflurane was determined for each pony. Then, effects of isoflurane administered at 0.85, 0.95, and 1.05 iMAC on the NWR were assessed. At each concentration, the NWR threshold was defined electromyographically for the common digital extensor and deltoid muscles by stimulating the digital nerve; additional electrical stimulations (3, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 40 mA) were delivered, and the evoked activity was recorded and analyzed. After the end of anesthesia, the NWR threshold was assessed in standing ponies. RESULTS: Mean +/- SD MAC of isoflurane was 1.0 +/- 0.2%. The NWR thresholds for both muscles increased significantly in a concentration-dependent manner during anesthesia, whereas they decreased in awake ponies. Significantly higher thresholds were found for the deltoid muscle, compared with thresholds for the common digital extensor muscle, in anesthetized ponies. At each iMAC tested, amplitudes of the reflex responses from both muscles increased as stimulus intensities increased from 3 to 40 mA. A concentration-dependent depression of evoked reflexes with reduction in slopes of the stimulus-response functions was detected. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Anesthetic-induced changes in sensory-motor processing in ponies anesthetized with isoflurane at concentrations of approximately 1.0 MAC can be detected by assessment of NWR. This method will permit comparison of effects of inhaled anesthetics or anesthetic combinations on spinal processing in equids.

New method for quantification and statistical analysis of nociceptive reflex receptive fields in humans

A method for quantifying nociceptive withdrawal reflex receptive fields in human volunteers and patients is described. The reflex receptive field (RRF) for a specific muscle denotes the cutaneous area from which a muscle contraction can be evoked by a nociceptive stimulus. The method is based on random stimulations presented in a blinded sequence to 10 stimulation sites. The sensitivity map is derived by interpolating the reflex responses evoked from the 10 sites. A set of features describing the size and location of the RRF is presented based on statistical analysis of the sensitivity map within every subject. The features include RRF area, volume, peak location and center of gravity. The method was applied to 30 healthy volunteers. Electrical stimuli were applied to the sole of the foot evoking reflexes in the ankle flexor tibialis anterior. The RRF area covered a fraction of 0.57+/-0.06 (S.E.M.) of the foot and was located on the medial, distal part of the sole of the foot. An intramuscular injection into flexor digitorum brevis of capsaicin was performed in one spinal cord injured subject to attempt modulation of the reflex receptive field. The RRF area, RRF volume and location of the peak reflex response appear to be the most sensitive measures for detecting modulation of spinal nociceptive processing. This new method has important potential applications for exploring aspects of central plasticity in volunteers and patients. It may be utilized as a new diagnostic tool for central hypersensitivity and quantification of therapeutic interventions.

The influence of a continuous rate infusion of dexmedetomidine on the nociceptive withdrawal reflex and temporal summation during isoflurane anaesthesia in dogs

Objective To examine the influence of a low dose dexmedetomidine infusion on the nociceptive withdrawal reflex and temporal summation in dogs during isoflurane anaesthesia. Study design Prospective experimental blinded cross-over study. Animals Eight healthy mixed breed dogs, body weight Mean +/- SD 26.5 +/- 8.4 kg and age 25 +/- 16 months. Methods Anaesthesia was induced with propofol and maintained with isoflurane (Fe'ISO 1.3%) delivered in oxygen and air. After stabilization, baseline recordings (time 0) were obtained, then a dexmedetomidine bolus (1 mug kg(-1) IV) followed by a continuous rate infusion (1 mug kg(-1) hour(-1) ) or saline placebo were administered. At times 10, 30 and 60 minutes after the initial bolus, electrical stimulations of increasing intensity were applied over the lateral plantar digital nerve, and administered both as single and as repeated stimuli. The resulting reflex responses were recorded using electromyography. Data were analysed using a multivariable linear regression model and a Kruskal Wallis test for single stimulation data, and repeated measures anova and paired t-test for repeated stimulation data. Results The AUC for the stimulus-response curves after single stimulation were similar for both treatments at time 0. At times 10, 30 and 60 the AUCs for the stimulus-response curves were significantly lower with dexmedetomidine treatment than with placebo. Temporal summation was evident in both treatments at times 0, 10, 30 and 60 starting from a stimulation intensity of 10 mA. The magnitude of temporal summation was smaller in dexmedetomidine than in placebo treated dogs at time 10, 30 and 60, but not at time 0. Conclusions During isoflurane anaesthesia, low dose dexmedetomidine suppresses the nociceptive reflex responses after single and repeated electrical stimulation. Clinical relevance This experimental study confirms previous reports on its peri-operative efficacy under clinical conditions, and further indicates that dexmedetomidine might reduce the risk of post-operative chronic pain development.

Unmasking of the trigemino-accessory reflex in accessory facial anastomosis

To evaluate the possible blink reflex responses in facial muscles reinnervated by the accessory nerve. Method: Eleven patients with a complete facial palsy were submitted to a surgical repair by an accessory facial nerve anastomosis (AFA). In this pathological group, blink reflex was studied by means of percutaneous electrical stimulation of the supraorbital nerve and recording from the orbicularis oculi muscle. A control group comprised seven normal people and seven patients with a complete Bell's facial palsy; in this group, responses on the sternocleidomastoideus (SCM) muscles were studied after supraorbital nerve stimulation. Results: All the patients with AFA showed a consistent degree of facial reinnervation. Ten out of the 11 patients with AFA showed reflex responses; in six, responses were configured by a double component pattern, resembling the R1 and R2 components of the blink reflex; three patients had an R1-like response and one patient showed a unique R2 component. Mean values of latencies were 15.2 (SD 4.6) ms for the R1 and 85.3 (SD 9.6) ms for the R2. In the control group, eight out of 14 people had evidence of reflex responses in the SCM muscles; these were almost exclusively configured by a bilateral late component (mean latency 63.5 (SD 15.9) ms) and only one of the subjects showed an early response at 11 ms. Conclusion: The trigemino-accessory reflex response in the pathological group was more complex and of a significantly higher incidence than in the control group. These differences could be tentatively explained by a mechanism of synaptic plasticity induced by the impairment of the efferent portion of the reflex. This could unmask the central linking between the trigeminal and the accessory limbs of the reflex. The findings described could be a demonstration of neurobionomic function in the repairing process of the nervous system.

Exercise Training Reduces Sympathetic Modulation on Cardiovascular System and Cardiac Oxidative Stress in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats

BACKGROUND Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) show increased cardiac sympathetic activity, which could stimulate cardiomyocyte hypertrophy, cardiac damage, and apoptosis. Norepinephrine (NE)induced cardiac oxidative stress seems to be involved in SHR cardiac hypertrophy development. Because exercise training (ET) decreases sympathetic activation and oxidative stress, it may alter cardiac hypertrophy in SHR. The aim of this study was to determine, in vivo, whether ET alters cardiac sympathetic modulation on cardiovascular system and whether a correlation exists between cardiac oxidative stress and hypertrophy. METHODS Male SHRs (15-weeks old) were divided into sedentary hypertensive (SHR, n = 7) and exercise-trained hypertensive rats (SHR-T, n = 7). Moderate ET was performed on a treadmill (5 days/week, 60 min, 10 weeks). After ET, cardiopulmonary reflex responses were assessed by bolus injections of 5-HT. Autoregressive spectral estimation was performed for systolic arterial pressure (SAP) with oscillatory components quantified as low (LF: 0.2-0.75 Hz) and high (HF:0.75-4.0 Hz) frequency ranges. Cardiac NE concentration, lipid peroxidation, antioxidant enzymes activities, and total nitrates/nitrites were determined. RESULTS ET reduced mean arterial pressure, SAP variability (SAP var), LIF of SAP, and cardiac hypertrophy and increased cardiopulmonary reflex responses. Cardiac lipid peroxidation was decreased in trained SHRs and positively correlated with NE concentrations (r= 0.89, P < 0.01) and heart weight/body weight ratio (r= 0.72, P < 0.01), and inversely correlated with total nitrates/nitrites (r= -0.79, P < 0.01). Moreover, in trained SHR, cardiac total nitrates/nitrites were inversely correlated with NE concentrations (r= -0.82, P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS ET attenuates cardiac sympathetic modulation and cardiac hypertrophy, which were associated with reduced oxidative stress and increased nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability. Am J Hypertens 2008;21:1138-1193 (C) 2008 American Journal of Hypertension, Ltd.

Functional significance of adenosine in carotid body chemosensory activity in control and chronically hypoxic animals

ABSTRACT: Carotid bodies (CB) are peripheral chemoreceptor organs sensing changes in arterial blood O2, CO2 and pH levels. Hypoxia and acidosis or hypercapnia activates CB chemoreceptor cells, which respond by releasing neurotransmitters in order to increase the action potential frequency in their sensory nerve, the carotid sinus nerve (CSN). CSN activity is integrated in the brainstem to induce a fan of cardiorespiratory reflex responses, aimed at normalising the altered blood gases. Exogenously applied adenosine (Ado) increases CSN chemosensory activity inducing hyperventilation through activation of A2 receptors. The importance of the effects of adenosine in chemoreception was reinforced by data obtained in humans, in which the intravenous infusion of Ado causes hyperventilation and dyspnoea, an effect that has been attributed to the activation of CB because Ado does not cross blood-brain barrier and because the ventilatory effects are higher the closer to the CB it is injected. The present work was performed in order to establish the functional significance of adenosine in chemoreception at the carotid body in control and chronically hypoxic rats. To achieve this objective we investigated: 1) The release of adenosine from a rat carotid body in vitro preparation in response to moderate hypoxia and the specificity of this release. We also investigated the metabolic pathways of adenosine production and release in the organ in normoxia and hypoxia; 2) The modulation of adenosine/ATP release from rat carotid body chemoreceptor cells by nicotinic ACh receptors; 3) The effects of caffeine on peripheral control of breathing and the identity of the adenosine receptors involved in adenosine and caffeine effects on carotid body chemoreceptors; 4) The interactions between dopamine D2 receptors and adenosine A2B receptors that modulate the release of catecholamines (CA) from the rat carotid body; 5) The effect of chronic caffeine intake i.e. the continuous blockage of adenosine receptors thereby simulating a caffeine dependence, on the carotid body function in control and chronically hypoxic rats. The methodologies used in this work included: molecular biology techniques (e.g. immunocytochemistry and western-blot), biochemical techniques (e.g. neurotransmitter quantification by HPLC, bioluminescence and radioisotopic methods), electrophysiological techniques (e.g. action potential recordings) and ventilatory recordings using whole-body plethysmography. It was observed that: 1) CB chemoreceptor sensitivity to hypoxia could be related to its low threshold for the release of adenosine because moderate acute hypoxia (10% O2) increased adenosine concentrations released from the CB by 44% but was not a strong enough stimulus to evoke adenosine release from superior cervical ganglia and arterial tissue; 2) Acetylcholine (ACh) modulates the release of adenosine/5’-adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from CB in moderate hypoxia through the activation of nicotinic receptors with α4 and ß2 receptor subunits, suggesting that the excitatory role of ACh in chemosensory activity includes indirect activation of purinergic receptors by adenosine and ATP, which strongly supports the hypothesis that ATP/adenosine are important mediators in chemotransduction; 3) adenosine increases the release of CA from rat CB chemoreceptor cells via A2B receptors; 4) the inhibitory effects of caffeine on CB chemoreceptors are mediated by antagonism of postsynaptic A2A and presynaptic A2B adenosine receptors indicating that chemosensory activity elicited by hypoxia is controlled by adenosine; 5) The release of CA from rat CB chemoreceptor cells is modulated by adenosine through an antagonistic interaction between A2B and D2 receptors, for the first time herein described; 6) chronic caffeine treatment did not significantly alter the basal function of CB in normoxic rats assessed as the dynamics of their neurotransmitters, dopamine, ATP and adenosine, and the CSN chemosensory activity. In contrast, the responses to hypoxia in these animals were facilitated by chronic caffeine intake because it increased the ventilatory response, slightly increased CSN chemosensory activity and increased dopamine (DA) and ATP release; 7) In comparison with normoxic rats, chronically hypoxic rats exhibited an increase in several parameters: ventilatory hypoxic response; basal and hypoxic CSN activity; tyrosine hydroxylase expression, CA content, synthesis and release; basal and hypoxic adenosine release; and in contrast a normal basal release and diminished hypoxia-induced ATP release; 8) Finally, in contrast to chronically hypoxic rats, chronic caffeine treatment did not alter the basal CSN chemosensory activity. Nevertheless, the responses to mild and intense hypoxia, and hypercapnia, were diminished. This inhibitory effect of chronic caffeine in CB output is compensated by central mechanisms, as the minute ventilation parameter in basal conditions and in response to acute hypoxic challenges remained unaltered in rats exposed to chronic hypoxia. We can conclude that adenosine both in acute and chronically hypoxic conditions have an excitatory role in the CB chemosensory activity, acting directly on adenosine A2A receptors present postsynaptically in CSN, and acting presynaptically via A2B receptors controlling the release of dopamine in chemoreceptor cells. We suggest that A2B -D2 adenosine / dopamine interactions at the CB could explain the increase in CA metabolism caused by chronic ingestion of caffeine during chronic hypoxia. It was also concluded that adenosine facilitates CB sensitisation to chronic hypoxia although this effect is further compensated at the central nervous system.-------- RESUMO: Os corpos carotídeos (CB) são pequenos orgãos emparelhados localizados na bifurcação da artéria carótida comum. Estes órgãos são sensíveis a variações na PaO2, PaCO2, pH e temperatura sendo responsáveis pela hiperventilação que ocorre em resposta à hipóxia, contribuindo também para a hiperventilação que acompanha a acidose metabólica e respiratória. As células quimiorreceptoras (tipo I ou glómicas) do corpo carotídeo respondem às variações de gases arteriais libertando neurotransmissores que activam as terminações sensitivas do nervo do seio carotídeo (CSN) conduzindo a informação ao centro respiratório central. Está ainda por esclarecer qual o neurotransmissor (ou os neurotransmissores) responsável pela sinalização hipóxica no corpo carotídeo. A adenosina é um neurotransmissor excitatório no CB que aumenta a actividade eléctrica do CSN induzindo a hiperventilação através da activação de receptores A2. A importância destes efeitos da adenosina na quimiorrecepção, descritos em ratos e gatos, foi reforçada por resultados obtidos em voluntários saudáveis onde a infusão intravenosa de adenosina em induz hiperventilação e dispneia, efeito atribuído a uma activação do CB uma vez que a adenosina não atravessa a barreira hemato-encefálica e o efeito é quanto maior quanto mais perto do CB for a administração de adenosina. O presente trabalho foi realizado com o objectivo de esclarecer qual o significado funcional da adenosina na quimiorrecepção no CB em animais controlo e em animais submetidos a hipoxia crónica mantida. Para alcançar este objectivo investigou-se: 1) o efeito da hipóxia moderada sobre a libertação de adenosina numa preparação in vitro de CB e a especificidade desta mesma libertação comparativamente com outros tecidos não quimiossensitivos, assim como as vias metabólicas de produção e libertação de adenosina no CB em normoxia e hipóxia; 2) a modulação da libertação de adenosina/ATP das células quimiorreceptoras do CB por receptores nicotínicos de ACh; 3) os efeitos da cafeína no controlo periférico da ventilação e a identidade dos receptores de adenosina envolvidos nos efeitos da adenosina e da cafeína nos quimiorreceptores do CB; 4) as interacções entre os receptores D2 de dopamina e os receptores A2B de adenosina que modulam a libertação de catecolaminas (CA) no CB de rato e; 5) o efeito da ingestão crónica de cafeína, isto é, o contínuo bloqueio e dos receptores de adenosina, simulando assim o consumo crónico da cafeína, tal como ocorre na população humana mundial e principalmente no ocidente, na função do corpo carotídeo em ratos controlo e em ratos submetidos a hipoxia crónica. Os métodos utilizados neste trabalho incluíram: técnicas de biologia molecular como imunocitoquímica e western-blot; técnicas bioquímicas, tais como a quantificação de neurotransmissores por HPLC, bioluminescência e métodos radioisotópicos; técnicas electrofisiológicas como o registro de potenciais eléctricos do nervo do seio carotídeo in vitro; e registros ventilatórios in vivo em animais não anestesiados e em livre movimento (pletismografia). Observou-se que: 1) a especificidade dos quimiorreceptores do CB como sensores de O2 está correlacionada com o baixo limiar de libertação de adenosina em resposta à hipóxia dado que a libertação de adenosina do CB aumenta 44% em resposta a uma hipóxia moderada (10% O2), que no entanto não é um estímulo suficientemente intenso para evocar a libertação de adenosina do gânglio cervical superior ou do tecido arterial. Observou-se também que aproximadamente 40% da adenosina libertada pelo CB provém do catabolismo extracelular do ATP quer em normóxia quer em hipóxia moderada, sendo que PO2 reduzidas induzem a libertação de adenosina via activação do sistema de transporte equilibrativo ENT1. 2) a ACh modula a libertação de adenosina /ATP do CB em resposta à hipoxia moderada sugerindo que o papel excitatório da ACh na actividade quimiossensora inclui a activação indirecta de receptores purinérgicos pela adenosina e ATP, indicando que a adenosina e o ATP poderiam actuar como mediadores importantes no processo de quimiotransducção uma vez que: a) a activação dos receptores nicotínicos de ACh no CB em normóxia estimula a libertação de adenosina (max 36%) provindo aparentemente da degradação extracelular do ATP. b) a caracterização farmacológica dos receptores nicotínicos de ACh envolvidos na estimulação da libertação de adenosina do CB revelou que os receptores nicotínicos de ACh envolvidos são constituídos por subunidades α4ß2. 3) a adenosina modula a libertação de catecolaminas das células quimiorreceptoras do CB através de receptores de adenosina A2B dado que: a)a cafeína, um antagonista não selectivo dos receptores de adenosina, inibiu a libertação de CA quer em normóxia quer em resposta a estímulos de baixa intensidade sendo ineficaz na libertação induzida por estímulos de intensidade superior; b) o DPCPX e do MRS1754 mimetizaram os efeitos da cafeína no CB sendo o SCH58621 incapaz de induzir a libertação de CA indicando que os efeitos da cafeína seriam mediados por receptores A2B de adenosina cuja presença nas células quimiorreceptoras do CB demonstramos por imunocitoquímica. 4) a aplicação aguda de cafeína inibiu em 52% a actividade quimiossensora do CSN induzida pela hipóxia sendo este efeito mediado respectivamente por receptores de adenosina A2A pós-sinápticos e A2B pré-sinápticos indicando que a actividade quimiossensora induzida pela hipóxia é controlada pela adenosina. 5) existe uma interacção entre os receptores A2B e D2 que controla a libertação de CA do corpo carotídeo de rato uma vez que: a) os antagonistas dos receptores D2, domperidona e haloperidol, aumentaram a libertação basal e evocada de CA das células quimiorreceptoras confirmando a presença de autorreceptores D2 no CB de rato que controlam a libertação de CA através de um mecanismo de feed-back negativo. b) o sulpiride, um antagonista dos receptores D2, aumentou a libertação de CA das células quimiorreceptoras revertendo o efeito inibitório da cafeína sobre esta mesma libertação; c) a propilnorapomorfina, um agonista D2 inibiu a libertação basal e evocada de CA sendo este efeito revertido pela NECA, um agonista dos receptores A2B. O facto de a NECA potenciar o efeito do haloperidol na libertação de CA sugere que a interacção entre os receptores D2 e A2B poderia também ocorrer ao nível de segundos mensageiros, como o cAMP. 6) a ingestão crónica de cafeína em ratos controlo (normóxicos) não alterou significativamente a função basal do CB medida como a dinâmica dos seus neurotransmissores, dopamina, ATP e adenosina e como actividade quimiossensora do CSN. Contrariamente aos efeitos basais, a ingestão crónica de cafeína facilitou a resposta à hipóxia, dado que aumentou o efeito no volume minuto respiratórioapresentando-se também uma clara tendência para aumentar a actividade quimiossensora do CSN e aumentar a libertação de ATP e dopamina.7) após um período de 15 dias de hipóxia crónica era evidente o fenómeno de aclimatização dado que as respostas ventilatórias à hipóxia se encontram aumentadas, assim como a actividade quimiossensora do CSN basal e induzida pela hipóxia. As alterações observadas no metabolismo da dopamina, assim como na libertação basal de dopamina e de adenosina poderiam contribuir para a aclimatização durante a hipoxia crónica. A libertação aumentada de adenosina em resposta à hipóxia aguda em ratos hipóxicos crónicos sugere um papel da adenosina na manutenção/aumento das respostas ventilatórias à hipóxia aguda durante a hipóxia crónica. Observou-se também que a libertação de ATP induzida pela hipóxia aguda se encontra diminuída em hipóxia crónica, contudo a ingestão crónica de cafeína reverteu este efeito para valores similares aos valores controlo, sugerindo que a adenosina possa modular a libertação de ATP em hipóxia crónica. 8) a ingestão crónica de cafeína em ratos hipóxicos crónicos induziu o aumento do metabolismo de CA no CB, medido como expressão de tirosina hidroxilase, conteúdo, síntese e libertação de CA. 9) a ingestão crónica de cafeína não provocou quaisquer alterações na actividade quimiossensora do CSN em ratos hipóxicos crónicos no entanto, as respostas do CSN à hipóxia aguda intensa e moderada e à hipercapnia encontram-se diminuídas. Este efeito inibitório que provém da ingestão crónica de cafeína parece ser compensado ao nível dos quimiorreceptores centrais dado que os parâmetros ventilatórios em condições basais e em resposta à hipoxia aguda não se encontram modificados em ratos expostos durante 15 dias a uma atmosfera hipóxica. Resumindo podemos assim concluir que a adenosina quer em situações de hipoxia aguda quer em condições de hipoxia crónica tem um papel excitatório na actividade quimiossensora do CB actuando directamente nos receptores A2A presentes pós-sinapticamente no CSN, assim como facilitando a libertação de dopamina pré-sinapticamente via receptores A2B presentes nas células quimiorreceptoras. A interacção negativa entre os receptores A2B e D2 observadas nas células quimiorreceptoras do CB poderia explicar o aumento do metabolismo de CA observado após a ingestão crónica de cafeína em animais hipóxicos. Conclui-se ainda que durante a aclimatização à hipóxia a acção inibitória da cafeína, em termos de resposta ventilatória, mediada pelos quimiorreceptores periféricos é compensada pelos efeitos excitatórios desta xantina ao nível do quimiorreceptores centrais.------- RESUMEN Los cuerpos carotídeos (CB) son órganos emparejados que están localizados en la bifurcación de la arteria carótida común. Estos órganos son sensibles a variaciones en la PaO2, en la PaCO2, pH y temperatura siendo responsables de la hiperventilación que ocurre en respuesta a la hipoxia, contribuyendo también a la hiperventilación que acompaña a la acidosis metabólica y respiratoria. Las células quimiorreceptoras (tipo I o glómicas) del cuerpo carotídeo responden a las variaciones de gases arteriales liberando neurotransmissores que activan las terminaciones sensitivas del nervio del seno carotídeo (CSN) llevando la información al centro respiratorio central. Todavía esta por clarificar cual el neurotransmisor (o neurotransmisores) responsable por la señalización hipóxica en el CB. La adenosina es un neurotransmisor excitatório en el CB ya que aumenta la actividad del CSN e induce la hiperventilación a través de la activación de receptores de adenosina del subtipo A2. La importancia de estos efectos de la adenosina en la quimiorrecepción, descritos en ratas y gatos, ha sido fuertemente reforzada por resultados obtenidos en voluntarios sanos en los que la infusión intravenosa de adenosina induce hiperventilación y dispnea, efectos estés que han sido atribuidos a una activación del CB ya que la adenosina no cruza la barrera hemato-encefalica y el efecto es tanto más grande cuanto más cercana del CB es la administración. Este trabajo ha sido realizado con el objetivo de investigar cual el significado funcional de la adenosina en la quimiorrecepción en el CB en animales controlo y en animales sometidos a hipoxia crónica sostenida. Para alcanzar este objetivo se ha estudiado: 1) el efecto de la hipoxia moderada en la liberación de adenosina en una preparación in vitro de CB y la especificidad de esta liberación en comparación con otros tejidos no-quimiosensitivos, así como las vías metabólicas de producción y liberación de adenosina del órgano en normoxia y hipoxia; 2) la modulación de la liberación de adenosina/ATP de las células quimiorreceptoras del CB por receptores nicotínicos de ACh; 3) los efectos de la cafeína en el controlo periférico de la ventilación y la identidad de los receptores de adenosina involucrados en los efectos de la adenosina y cafeína en los quimiorreceptores del CB; 4) las interacciones entre los receptores D2 de dopamina y los receptores A2B de adenosina que modulan la liberación de catecolaminas (CA) en el CB de rata y; 5) el efecto de la ingestión crónica de cafeína, es decir, el bloqueo sostenido de los receptores de adenosina, simulando la dependencia de cafeína observada en la populación mundial del occidente, en la función del CB en ratas controlo y sometidas a hipoxia crónica sostenida. Los métodos utilizados en este trabajo incluirán: técnicas de biología molecular como imunocitoquímica y western-blot; técnicas bioquímicas, tales como la cuantificación de neurotransmissores por HPLC, bioluminescencia y métodos radioisotópicos; técnicas electrofisiológicas como el registro de potenciales eléctricos del nervio do seno carotídeo in vitro; y registros ventilatórios in vivo en animales no anestesiados y en libre movimiento (pletismografia). Se observó que: 1) la sensibilidad de los quimiorreceptores de CB esta correlacionada con un bajo umbral de liberación de adenosina en respuesta a la hipoxia ya que en respuesta a una hipoxia moderada (10% O2) la liberación de adenosina en el CB aumenta un 44%, sin embargo esta PaO2 no es un estimulo suficientemente fuerte para inducir la liberación de adenosina del ganglio cervical superior o del tejido arterial; se observó también que aproximadamente 40% de la adenosina liberada del CB proviene del catabolismo extracelular del ATP en normoxia y en hipoxia moderada, y que bajas PO2 inducen la liberación de adenosina vía activación del sistema de transporte equilibrativo ENT1. 2) la ACh modula la liberación de adenosina /ATP del CB en respuesta a la hipóxia moderada lo que sugiere que el papel excitatório de la ACh en la actividad quimiosensora incluye la activación indirecta de receptores purinérgicos por la adenosina y el ATP, indicando que la adenosina y el ATP pueden actuar como mediadores importantes en el proceso de quimiotransducción ya que: a) la activación de los receptores nicotínicos de ACh en el CB en normoxia estimula la liberación de adenosina (max 36%) que aparentemente proviene de la degradación extracelular del ATP. Se observó también que este aumento de adenosina en el CB en hipoxia ha sido antagonizado parcialmente por antagonistas de estos mismos receptores; b) la caracterización farmacológica de los receptores nicotínicos de ACh involucrados en la estimulación de la liberación de adenosina del CB ha revelado que los receptores nicotínicos de ACh involucrados son constituidos por sub-unidades α4ß2. 3) la adenosina modula la liberación de CA de las células quimiorreceptoras del CB a través de receptores de adenosina A2B ya que: a) la cafeína, un antagonista no selectivo de los receptores de adenosina, ha inhibido la liberación de CA en normoxia y en respuesta a estímulos de baja intensidad siendo ineficaz en la liberación inducida por estímulos de intensidad superior; b) el DPCPX y el MRS1754 ha mimetizado los efectos de la cafeína en el CB y el SCH58621 ha sido incapaz de inducir la liberación de CA lo que sugiere que los efectos de la cafeína son mediados por receptores A2B de adenosina que están localizados pré-sinapticamente en las células quimiorreceptoras del CB. 4) la aplicación aguda de cafeína ha inhibido en 52% la actividad quimiosensora del CSN inducida por la hipoxia siendo este efecto mediado respectivamente por receptores de adenosina A2A pós-sinápticos y A2B pré-sinápticos lo que indica que la actividad quimiosensora inducida por la hipoxia es controlada por la adenosina. 5) existe una interacción entre los receptores A2B y D2 que controla la liberación de CA del CB de rata ya que: a) el sulpiride, un antagonista de los receptores D2, ha aumentado la liberación de CA de las células quimiorreceptoras revertiendo el efecto inhibitorio de la cafeína sobre esta misma liberación; b) los antagonistas de los receptores D2, domperidona y haloperidol, han aumentado la liberación basal e evocada de CA de las células quimiorreceptoras confirmando la presencia de autorreceptores D2 en el CB de rata que controlan la liberación de CA a través de un mecanismo de feed-back negativo; c) la propilnorapomorfina, un agonista D2, ha inhibido la liberación basal e evocada de CA sendo este efecto revertido por la NECA, un agonista de los receptores A2B. Ya que la NECA potencia el efecto del haloperidol en la liberación de CA la interacción entre los D2 y A2B puede también ocurrir al nivel de segundos mensajeros, como el cAMP. 6) la ingestión crónica de cafeína en ratas controlo (normóxicas) no ha cambiado significativamente la función basal del CB medida como la dinámica de sus neurotransmisores, dopamina, ATP y adenosina y como actividad quimiosensora del CSN. Al revés de lo que pasa con los efectos básales, la ingestión crónica de cafeína facilitó la respuesta a la hipóxia, ya que ha aumentado la respuesta ventilatória medida como volumen minuto presentando también una clara tendencia para aumentar la actividad quimiosensora del CSN y aumentar la liberación de ATP y dopamina. 7. Después de un período de 15 días de hipoxia crónica se puede observar el fenómeno de climatización ya que las respuestas ventilatórias a la hipoxia están aumentadas, así como la actividad quimiosensora del CSN basal e inducida por la hipoxia. Los cambios observados en el metabolismo de la dopamina, así como en la liberación basal de dopamina y de adenosina podrían contribuir para la climatización en hipoxia crónica. El aumento en la liberación de adenosina en respuesta a la hipoxia aguda en ratas sometidas a hipoxia crónica sugiere un papel para la adenosina en el mantenimiento/aumento de las respuestas ventilatórias a la hipoxia aguda en hipoxia crónica sostenida. Se ha observado también que la liberación de ATP inducida por la hipoxia aguda está disminuida en hipoxia crónica y que la ingestión crónica de cafeína reverte este efecto para valores similares a los valores controlo, sugiriendo que la adenosina podría modular la liberación de ATP en hipoxia crónica. 8. la ingestión crónica de cafeína ha inducido el aumento del metabolismo de CA en el CB en ratas hipóxicas crónicas, medido como expresión de la tirosina hidroxilase, contenido, síntesis y liberación de CA. 9. la ingestión crónica de cafeína no ha inducido cambios en la actividad quimiosensora del CSN en ratas hipóxicas crónicas sin embargo las respuestas do CSN a una hipoxia intensa y moderada y a la hipercapnia están disminuidas. Este efecto inhibitorio que es debido a la ingestión crónica de cafeína es compensado al nivel de los quimiorreceptores centrales ya que los parámetros ventilatórios en condiciones básales y en respuesta a la hipoxia aguda no están modificados en ratas expuestas durante 15 días a una atmósfera hipóxica. Resumiendo se puede concluir que la adenosina en situaciones de hipoxia aguda así como en hipoxia crónica tiene un papel excitatório en la actividad quimiosensora del CB actuando directamente en los receptores A2A localizados pós-sinapticamente en el CSN, así como controlando la liberación de dopamina pré-sinaptica vía receptores A2B localizados en las células quimiorreceptoras. Las interacciones entre los receptores A2B y D2 observadas en las células quimiorreceptoras del CB podrían explicar el aumento del metabolismo de CA observado después de la ingestión crónica de cafeína en animales hipóxicos. Por fin, pero no menos importante se puede concluir que durante la climatización a la hipoxia la acción inhibitoria de la cafeína, medida como respuesta ventilatória, mediada por los quimiorreceptores periféricos es compensada por los efectos excitatórios de esta xantina al nivel de los quimiorreceptores centrales.

Glutamatergic transmission in the nucleus tractus solitarii: from server to peripherals in the cardiovascular information superhighway

Afferent nerves carrying signals from mechanoreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid sinus terminate predominantly in the nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS). Signal transduction and neurotransmission in the NTS are critical for central cardiovascular reflex control, but little was known about either until the late 1970's. None of the numerous neuroactive chemicals found in the NTS had met strict criteria as a neurotransmitter in the baroreflex arc until data suggested that the excitatory amino acid L-glutamate (GLU) might be released from baroreceptor afferent terminals in the NTS. In anesthetized animals microinjection into the NTS of GLU, which can be demonstrated in terminals in the NTS, produces cardiovascular responses like those seen with activation of the baroreceptor reflex. Similar responses occur in awake animals if the chemoreceptor reflex is eliminated; otherwise, in conscious animals responses mimic those of chemoreceptor reflex activation. GLU is released in the NTS upon selective activation of the baroreceptor, and possibly the chemoreceptor, reflex. Responses to selective agonists as well as baroreflex responses are eliminated by GLU antagonists microinjected into the NTS. Non-NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartic acid) receptors seem to predominate at primary baroreceptor synapses in the NTS while NMDA receptors may be involved at later synapses. Although inhibition of soluble guanylate cyclase attenuates responses to ionotropic glutamate agonists in the NTS, nitric oxide does not seem to play a role in glutamate transmission in the NTS. GLU may also participate in transmission at cardiovascular neurons beyond the NTS. For example, a role has been suggested for GLU in the ventrolateral medulla and spinal cord. Work continues concerning GLU signal transduction and mechanisms that modulate that transduction both at the NTS and at other cardiovascular nuclei