Impacto de la captura ilegal en la pesquería del recurso ‘loco’ (Concholepas concholepas) en Áreas de Manejo y Explotación de Recursos Bentónicos: el caso de la Isla Mocha

En Chile, el gastrópodo Concholepas concholepas conocido popularmente como ‘loco’, es un importante recurso bentónico de las pesquerías artesanales, con el que el Estado introdujo en la segunda mitad de los 90s un régimen de co-manejo denominado Áreas de Manejo y Explotación de Recursos Bentónicos (AMERB). En él se asignan a pescadores artesanales formalmente organizados, derechos exclusivos de acceso a stocks de recursos bentónicos en áreas marino costeras geográficamente delimitadas, para su explotación y manejo. Actualmente, 758 AMERB decretadas se extienden en 38º latitudinales de la línea costera chilena, con un total de más de 124.000Ha asignadas, y más de 31.000 pescadores artesanales participantes; siendo consideradas por la comunidad académica internacional como uno de los más grandes experimentos de comanejo a escala global. A pesar de los importantes avances logrados con las AMERB, el régimen enfrenta todavía retos y amenazas, entre los que la captura Ilegal y/o No Declarada (captura IND), a pesar de ser considerada especialmente grave por los pescadores usuarios del sistema, es omitida por la administración central, que establece Capturas Totales Permisibles (CTPs) suponiendo niveles de captura IND nulos, lo que conlleva a arriesgar la sustentabilidad tanto económica como biológica del sistema, además de distorsionar y devaluar la información proveniente del sector formal. En la presente Tesis, se evalúa el impacto de la captura ilegal (robos) del recurso ‘loco’ sobre la sustentabilidad biológica y económica de un sistema AMERB en la Isla Mocha. Con tal propósito se realizaron, consultas formales a las principales entidades públicas fiscalizadoras, una evaluación socio-económica extractiva con los usuarios de AMERB de la Isla Mocha, además de la recopilación de data secundaria. En vista de la escasa respuesta obtenida con las consultas formales, basamos el estudio principalmente en la evaluación socio-económica extractiva. Ésta consistió en la aplicación de entrevistas semi-estructuradas, dirigidas a caracterizar al sector extractivo ilegal, a reconstruir una serie histórica de capturas ilegales intra-AMERB de ‘loco’ en Isla Mocha, y a sistematizar las percepciones de los pescadores sobre los factores causales y las propuestas de solución en torno al problema. Adicionalmente, se desarrolló un modelo bioeconómico simple para analizar el impacto de diferentes niveles de captura ilegal (robo) de ‘loco’, sobre la sustentabilidad económica y ecológica de una AMERB particular. El modelo supone un único stock cerrado, cuya abundancia mensual, es afectada positivamente por un reclutamiento. denso-dependiente y negativamente por la captura formal y la captura ilegal; y además incorpora aspectos económicos resultantes de calcular los costos asociados al despliegue del esfuerzo pesquero formal, los ingresos brutos asociados a la venta de las capturas formales, y los consiguientes beneficios netos obtenidos. Se evaluaron los impactos en 48 diferentes escenarios de simulación (combinación de 4 niveles de Robo, 3 Reglas de Cosecha, y 4 Precios en playa de ‘loco’), mediante el análisis de 4 variables anuales además de 4 indicadores descriptivos de las dinámicas bio-pesquera y económica del sistema en un lapso de simulación de 12 años, generándose 100 salidas por año, cuyos estadígrafos se compararon mediante ANOVA y Pruebas de Tukey. Los resultados indican que los factores más explicativos de la varianza de las salidas de simulación para los 4 indicadores propuestos, son el ‘Robo’, la ‘Regla-Cosecha’, seguidos de la interacción ‘Robo-Regla-Cosecha’; mientras que las proyecciones de abundancia a enero, reclutamiento, y capturas anuales formal e ilegal, muestran que el reclutamiento y dinámica poblacional del stock simulado de ‘loco’, serían resilientes en todos los escenarios, excepto en aquellos resultantes de combinar el nivel de ‘Robo Descontrolado’ con cualquier nivel de ‘Regla-Cosecha’, donde la pesquería formal colapsa. En un escenario “idóneo” para los usuarios del AMERB (ausencia de robos, una elevada tasa de cosecha formal, y buen precio del recurso), el indicador económico generaría promedios de hasta $8,8 millones/año por embarcación formal participante, sin afectar la sostenibilidad del stock simulado. En cuanto a las percepciones, los usuarios de AMERB de Isla Mocha consideran más grave y más compleja la problemática asociada a la captura ilegal de ‘loco’ intra-AMERB imputada a foráneos con respecto a aquella imputada a isleños; no obstante, identifican causas comunes a ambas, agrupadas en los componentes ‘distorsiones socioeconómicas’, ‘ineficacia del régimen de manejo pesquero’, ‘debilidades internas a la organización’, y ‘productividad pesquera artesanal reducida’. Dentro de las ‘distorsiones socioeconómicas’, el ítem “necesidad económica” es considerado como el principal incentivo para la captura ilegal de ‘loco’. En el componente ‘ineficacia del régimen manejo pesquero’, para el robo de infractores foráneos se considera como principal ítem causal a una “fiscalización ineficaz de la Armada”; mientras que para el robo de infractores isleños se consideran como principal ítem causal a una “fiscalización interna ineficaz”. Los ítems de solución propuestos para afrontar a los infractores foráneos, expresan que las acciones deben provenir más del lado institucional normativo público, identificando principalmente a la Armada como infractor protagónico de acción. Asimismo, las propuestas para afrontar a los infractores isleños, expresan que la mayor expectativa de solución de los usuarios de AMERB está puesta en mejoras de la sanción y vigilancia de sus propias organizaciones, algunas de ellas apoyadas por la Armada.

Prospección del recurso Erizo (Loxechinus albus) en Pisco, San Juan de Marcona y Lomas 1998 y enero 1999

Describe que la demanda del erizo verde Loxechinus albus con fines de exportación y la influencia que tuvo el evento El Niño 1997-1998 sobre el recurso, el cual fue negativo sobre la mayoría de recursos bentónicos, ya que produjeron una rápida disminución de sus niveles poblacionales en los puertos de Pisco, San Juan de Marcona y Lomas, registrándose 1998 los desembarques más bajos desde 1993-1994.

Ecoturismo Subacuático. Aplicación al Caso Particular de la Evaluación de un Sendero Submarino en las Costas de Maitencillo, V Región, Valparaíso, Chile.

La siguiente tesis nace a partir de la implementación de la actividad de buceo deportivo en el año 2002 en la Caleta de pescadores artesanales de Maitencillo, quinta región, Chile. Los pescadores administran, para su explotación, un tipo de área marina protegida llamada área de manejo y explotación de recursos bentónicos (AMERB), por lo que se hizo indispensable implementar un Plan de Gestión para el buceo deportivo con la finalidad de regular y controlar la actividad para proteger los recursos existentes en el área, sus ecosistemas y su biodiversidad. Para ello, se construyó un Sendero Submarino con 3 circuitos para el buceo. La tesis contextualiza el desarrollo y ejecución del proyecto y evalúa el Plan de Gestión y la utilización del Sendero Submarino y, para ello, se desarrolla una metodología para el cálculo de la capacidad de carga del Sendero y para la evaluación del Plan de Gestión, a través de indicadores biofísicos, socioeconómicos y de gobernabilidad. Esta tesis plantea un modelo de desarrollo a partir del principio del Ecodesarrollo, destacando, principalmente, que es la comunidad local de pescadores artesanales quien ejecuta y administra el proyecto, sin necesidad de recurrir a operadores privados de buceo y, por tanto, logrando para si los beneficios y el control de la actividad; por otro lado, destaca también que es una actividad a baja escala, con bajos impactos ambientales y por tanto sustentable y replicable para otras organizaciones de pescadores. Los resultados indican que con la información biofísica obtenida se pueden tomar medidas de gestión para la actividad de buceo de acuerdo al estado de los recursos bentónicos principales explotados por los pescadores, ya sea restringiendo la actividad, o suspendiéndola por algún período. Los resultados muestran que la cantidad de buceadores que utilizan el Sendero Submarino está muy por debajo de la capacidad de carga calculada, lo que hace que la presión de esta actividad sobre los recursos y el ecosistema marino sea muy baja. Los resultados socioeconómicos y de gobernabilidad indican que esta actividad ha generado ingresos adicionales para los pescadores que trabajan en esta actividad y también ha generado nuevos puestos de trabajo; además, la organización sindical se ha ido fortaleciendo al crear la comisión de ecoturismo y dar responsabilidades a otros pescadores en la gestión de la actividad. La tesis confirma la hipótesis de que “Los Senderos Submarinos pueden ser una forma de turismo sostenible en áreas marinas protegidas”. The present thesis is based on the implementation of scuba diving activities in the year 2002, in the local fishing cove of Maitencillo, Fifth region, Chile. The local fishermen manage the exploitation process of a type of protected marine area called benthic resource management and exploitation area (BRMEA); for this reason, the implementation of a Management programme for scuba diving to regulate and control this activity to protect the resources in the area, their ecosystems and biodiversity, became a priority. In 2002, an Underwater Path was built, with three tracks for scuba diving practice. This thesis contextualises the development and implementation of the Management programme and the use of the Underwater Path. It also develops a methodology to calculate the payload for the Underwater Path, and to assess the Management project through biophysical, economic and governance indicators. This thesis also proposes a development model by the principle of Sustainable development, with the local community of fishermen implementing and handling the project, without the intervention of private diving agencies, generating economic and social benefits, keeping environmental impact to a minimum level, and making it sustainable and worth emulating for other fishermen organisations. The results indicate, through the biophysical data obtained, that it is possible to take managerial measures regarding the scuba diving activity, according to the state of the most exploited benthic resources, by either restricting the activity or plainly suspending it for some time. The results show that the amount of divers using the Underwater path are way below the calculated payload, which keeps the strain that scuba diving causes on these resources and marine ecosystem to the minimum. The results of the socioeconomic and governance issues indicate that this activity has generated additional profits for the fishermen working in this activity, and also new jobs. Furthermore, the syndicate has strengthened thanks to the creation of an ecotourism commission and by assigning other local fishermen with responsibilities in the organisation of the activity. The thesis confirms the hypothesis that states, “Underwater Paths can become a form of sustainable tourism in protected marine areas”

Causas e consequências da onivoria de peixes em ecossistemas aquáticos

Omnivory is a predominant feeding strategy among tropical fishes, but knowledge about its causes and consequences of this pattern is scarce. In this study we hypothesized that tropical fish feed lower in food web as a way to compensate a higher energetic demand, which increases with increasing water temperature and body size. Information about 8172 freshwater and marine fish species from whole world, from tropical and temperate ecosystems, showed that the trophic position of non-carnivore fish decreases with increasing body size in tropical but not in temperate ecosystems. This result indicates that the higher energetic demand of large-bodied tropical fish should exert a selective force in favor of omnivory. As a consequence, trophic dynamics in tropical freshwater ecosystems should have different patterns comparing to temperate ones, with major implications for water management and restoration of eutrophic aquatic ecosystems. Another hypothesis of this work was that effects of tropical omnivorous planktivorous fish on planktonic communities depend of primary producers stoichiometric composition, which depends of light availability relative to nutrients ratios. A mesocosm experiment, manipulating light availability and planktivorous fish presence, confirmed our hypothesis indicating that resource stoichiometric composition (consequently nutritional quality), determine trophic structure of pelagic food webs in tropical lakes. Finally another mesocosm experiment indicated that the removal of omnivorous benthivorous fish should be more efficient than removal of omnivorous planktivorus fish, as a way to improve water quality in tropical lakes and reservoirs. This last experiment showed that omnivorous planktivorous fish increase phytoplankton biomass due to trophic cascade interactions, without increasing nutrient concentrations in the water column. On the other hand, omnivorous benthivorous fish, feeding on detritus and other benthonic food sources and excreting nutrients in the water column, are responsible for translocate nutrient from sediments to the water column, increasing phosphorus pool and phytoplankton biomass. Thereby, internal phosphorus supply should be reduced and water quality of eutrophicated lakes could be improved by removing omnivorous benthivorous fish.

Causas e consequências da onivoria de peixes em ecossistemas aquáticos

Omnivory is a predominant feeding strategy among tropical fishes, but knowledge about its causes and consequences of this pattern is scarce. In this study we hypothesized that tropical fish feed lower in food web as a way to compensate a higher energetic demand, which increases with increasing water temperature and body size. Information about 8172 freshwater and marine fish species from whole world, from tropical and temperate ecosystems, showed that the trophic position of non-carnivore fish decreases with increasing body size in tropical but not in temperate ecosystems. This result indicates that the higher energetic demand of large-bodied tropical fish should exert a selective force in favor of omnivory. As a consequence, trophic dynamics in tropical freshwater ecosystems should have different patterns comparing to temperate ones, with major implications for water management and restoration of eutrophic aquatic ecosystems. Another hypothesis of this work was that effects of tropical omnivorous planktivorous fish on planktonic communities depend of primary producers stoichiometric composition, which depends of light availability relative to nutrients ratios. A mesocosm experiment, manipulating light availability and planktivorous fish presence, confirmed our hypothesis indicating that resource stoichiometric composition (consequently nutritional quality), determine trophic structure of pelagic food webs in tropical lakes. Finally another mesocosm experiment indicated that the removal of omnivorous benthivorous fish should be more efficient than removal of omnivorous planktivorus fish, as a way to improve water quality in tropical lakes and reservoirs. This last experiment showed that omnivorous planktivorous fish increase phytoplankton biomass due to trophic cascade interactions, without increasing nutrient concentrations in the water column. On the other hand, omnivorous benthivorous fish, feeding on detritus and other benthonic food sources and excreting nutrients in the water column, are responsible for translocate nutrient from sediments to the water column, increasing phosphorus pool and phytoplankton biomass. Thereby, internal phosphorus supply should be reduced and water quality of eutrophicated lakes could be improved by removing omnivorous benthivorous fish.

Trazas de metales en agua, sedimento y organismos bentónicos en bancos naturales de las Regiones Tacna y Moquegua

En septiembre del 2009 se evaluó el contenido de trazas de metales en los bancos naturales de Meca-Lozas (Tacna), Tancona y Punta Coles (Moquegua), en un ámbito donde la temperatura fue inferior al patrón estacional y en presencia de Aguas Costeras Frías en toda la columna de agua. Las trazas de cobre, plomo y cadmio contenidos en agua de los tres bancos naturales, no superaron los Estándares de Calidad Ambiental para Conservación del Ambiente Acuático (Grupo 4). Las trazas de cobre, plomo, cadmio y cinc para sedimentos, no superó al Probable Nivel de Efecto estipulado en la Tabla de Protección Costera de los EE UU, a excepción del cobre que superó el estándar en una estación (136,99 μg/g) de Meca-Las Lozas. Sólo las concentraciones traza de cobre en los tres bancos naturales y en los cuerpos eviscerados de caracol negro (Thaisella chocolata), lapa (Fissurella sp.), chanque (Concholepas concholepas) y choro (Aulacomya atra) superaron el límite máximo permisible internacional estipulado por la FAO, siendo la mayor concentración de 1782,27 μg/g en la especie Fissurella sp. muestreada en Meca-Lozas, por lo que se concluye que las especies que bioacumulan más trazas de cobre son Fissurella sp., Thaisella chocolata, Concholepas concholepas y Aulacomya atra.

Avaliação da qualidade da água do Rio Piranhas-Açu/RN utilizando a comunidade de macroinvertebrados bentônicos

The biomonitoring technique for water quality in water bodies has been incorporated increasingly in management of the natural resources, using mainly indices of its aquatic community characteristics. In Brazil the first efforts to use this technique was restricted to the South and the Midwest region of this country. Located in the northeast region, this study was conducted at Rio Grande do Norte state and had as main objective the assessment of water quality in the Piranhas-Açu river using benthic macroinvertebrates community as biological indicators. Thus, were applied two biotic indices, the BMWP (Biological Monitoring Working Party score system) and the IBF (Family Biotic Index). According the requirements of these indices, two periods of sampling were determined as basic methodology, in dry seasons of 2006 and 2007. The sampling sites were around the municipalities of Açu, Ipanguaçu, Alto do Rodrigues and Pendências. Physical-chemical measurements; a protocol of rapid assessment of diversity of habitats, and determination of the degree of tolerance of each taxon to organic pollution were also performed. The most abundant organisms found in the river were tolerant with the prevalence of Chironomidae (Diptera) and Melanoides tuberculata. This results, together with those ones got in indices application, showed a considerable organic pollution in the four sample places and the reaches were classified as modified to impacted. According to the used indices, this study suggest that this river have significant alteration in the biotic community and water quality on the organic pollution, and this fact, occurs in the reach of the river further downstream, where were expected a good water quality. Considering these results, measures aiming the conservation of this water body are needed regarding as it is inserted into a fragile ecosystem with dry season phenomenon, and the water of this river has extremely importance for the local economy

Os macroinvertebrados bentônicos em lagoas marginais ao Rio Paranapanema: avaliação dos hábitos alimentares de Chironomidae e Ephemeroptera através de análise do conteúdo estomacal

Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Zoologia) - IBB

Macroinvertebrados bentônicos de um riacho urbano (Angatuba, SP) sob influência de diferentes pressões antrópicas: uma análise longitudinal e sazonal da composição e dieta

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Avaliação da qualidade da água do Rio Piranhas-Açu/RN utilizando a comunidade de macroinvertebrados bentônicos

The biomonitoring technique for water quality in water bodies has been incorporated increasingly in management of the natural resources, using mainly indices of its aquatic community characteristics. In Brazil the first efforts to use this technique was restricted to the South and the Midwest region of this country. Located in the northeast region, this study was conducted at Rio Grande do Norte state and had as main objective the assessment of water quality in the Piranhas-Açu river using benthic macroinvertebrates community as biological indicators. Thus, were applied two biotic indices, the BMWP (Biological Monitoring Working Party score system) and the IBF (Family Biotic Index). According the requirements of these indices, two periods of sampling were determined as basic methodology, in dry seasons of 2006 and 2007. The sampling sites were around the municipalities of Açu, Ipanguaçu, Alto do Rodrigues and Pendências. Physical-chemical measurements; a protocol of rapid assessment of diversity of habitats, and determination of the degree of tolerance of each taxon to organic pollution were also performed. The most abundant organisms found in the river were tolerant with the prevalence of Chironomidae (Diptera) and Melanoides tuberculata. This results, together with those ones got in indices application, showed a considerable organic pollution in the four sample places and the reaches were classified as modified to impacted. According to the used indices, this study suggest that this river have significant alteration in the biotic community and water quality on the organic pollution, and this fact, occurs in the reach of the river further downstream, where were expected a good water quality. Considering these results, measures aiming the conservation of this water body are needed regarding as it is inserted into a fragile ecosystem with dry season phenomenon, and the water of this river has extremely importance for the local economy

Avaliação da qualidade da água do Rio Piranhas-Açu/RN utilizando a comunidade de macroinvertebrados bentônicos

The biomonitoring technique for water quality in water bodies has been incorporated increasingly in management of the natural resources, using mainly indices of its aquatic community characteristics. In Brazil the first efforts to use this technique was restricted to the South and the Midwest region of this country. Located in the northeast region, this study was conducted at Rio Grande do Norte state and had as main objective the assessment of water quality in the Piranhas-Açu river using benthic macroinvertebrates community as biological indicators. Thus, were applied two biotic indices, the BMWP (Biological Monitoring Working Party score system) and the IBF (Family Biotic Index). According the requirements of these indices, two periods of sampling were determined as basic methodology, in dry seasons of 2006 and 2007. The sampling sites were around the municipalities of Açu, Ipanguaçu, Alto do Rodrigues and Pendências. Physical-chemical measurements; a protocol of rapid assessment of diversity of habitats, and determination of the degree of tolerance of each taxon to organic pollution were also performed. The most abundant organisms found in the river were tolerant with the prevalence of Chironomidae (Diptera) and Melanoides tuberculata. This results, together with those ones got in indices application, showed a considerable organic pollution in the four sample places and the reaches were classified as modified to impacted. According to the used indices, this study suggest that this river have significant alteration in the biotic community and water quality on the organic pollution, and this fact, occurs in the reach of the river further downstream, where were expected a good water quality. Considering these results, measures aiming the conservation of this water body are needed regarding as it is inserted into a fragile ecosystem with dry season phenomenon, and the water of this river has extremely importance for the local economy