Transcriptional regulation of flavonoid biosynthesis in nectarine (Prunus persica) by a set of R2R3 MYB transcription factors

Background Flavonoids such as anthocyanins, flavonols and proanthocyanidins, play a central role in fruit colour, flavour and health attributes. In peach and nectarine (Prunus persica) these compounds vary during fruit growth and ripening. Flavonoids are produced by a well studied pathway which is transcriptionally regulated by members of the MYB and bHLH transcription factor families. We have isolated nectarine flavonoid regulating genes and examined their expression patterns, which suggests a critical role in the regulation of flavonoid biosynthesis. Results In nectarine, expression of the genes encoding enzymes of the flavonoid pathway correlated with the concentration of proanthocyanidins, which strongly increases at mid-development. In contrast, the only gene which showed a similar pattern to anthocyanin concentration was UDP-glucose-flavonoid-3-O-glucosyltransferase (UFGT), which was high at the beginning and end of fruit growth, remaining low during the other developmental stages. Expression of flavonol synthase (FLS1) correlated with flavonol levels, both temporally and in a tissue specific manner. The pattern of UFGT gene expression may be explained by the involvement of different transcription factors, which up-regulate flavonoid biosynthesis (MYB10, MYB123, and bHLH3), or repress (MYB111 and MYB16) the transcription of the biosynthetic genes. The expression of a potential proanthocyanidin-regulating transcription factor, MYBPA1, corresponded with proanthocyanidin levels. Functional assays of these transcription factors were used to test the specificity for flavonoid regulation. Conclusions MYB10 positively regulates the promoters of UFGT and dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR) but not leucoanthocyanidin reductase (LAR). In contrast, MYBPA1 trans-activates the promoters of DFR and LAR, but not UFGT. This suggests exclusive roles of anthocyanin regulation by MYB10 and proanthocyanidin regulation by MYBPA1. Further, these transcription factors appeared to be responsive to both developmental and environmental stimuli.

Foraging behaviours of Diachasmimorpha kraussii (Fullaway) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) and its host Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) (Diptera: Tephritidae) in a nectarine (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch var. nectarina (Aiton) Maxim) orchard

Diachasmimorpha kraussii is a larval parasitoid of dacine fruit flies. Host utilisation behaviour, including field foraging behaviour, is poorly known in this species. The diurnal foraging behaviour of D. kraussii and one of its common hosts, Bactrocera tryoni, in a nectarine orchard was concurrently recorded. Observations of mating, resting, feeding and oviposition were taken two-hourly on 42 trees, commencing at 07:00 h and terminating at 17:30 h, for 17 days. Resting and oviposition were common events within the orchard for both species, while mating behaviours were not recorded in the orchard for either species. Feeding was not observed for D. kraussii and was rare for B. tryoni. At the level of the individual tree there was a very weak, but significant correlation between parasitoid and fly abundance over a day, but when broken down to the individual observation periods the correlations were absent, or were weakly significant in an inconsistent manner (i.e. sometimes positively correlated, sometimes negatively correlated). At the orchard level, abundance of the parasitoid was not correlated with adult fly abundance. Results suggest that D. kraussii forage independently to adult B. tryoni, a result consistent with a prediction that their foraging is largely driven by larval or plant damage cues.

Japanese plums (Prunus salicina Lindl.) and phytochemicals – breeding, horticultural practice, post-harvest storage, processing and bioactivity

Previous reviews of plum phytochemical content and health benefits have concentrated on the European plum, Prunus domestica L.. However, the potential bioactivity of red and dark red fleshed Japanese plum, Prunus salicina Lindl., so called blood plums, appears to warrant a significant increase in exposure as indicated in a recent review of the whole Prunus genus. Furthermore, Japanese plums are the predominate plum produced on an international basis. In this review the nutrient and phytochemical content, breeding programs, horticultural practice, post harvest treatment and processing as well as bioactivity (emphasizing in vivo studies) of Japanese plum are considered with a focus on the anthocyanin content that distinguishes the blood plums.

Modificaciones en la composición de la pared celular de frutos de cerezo dulce (Prunus avium L.) : incidencia del estado ontogénico y del cultivar

Durante la ontogenia de las cerezas dulces (Prunus avium L.) se producen cambios que conducen a la maduración y al ablandamiento del fruto, asociados a una modificación en la composición de la pared celular, ocurriendo de forma diferenciada en cerezas firmes y blandas. Esta característica también incide en la resistencia de estos frutos a los daños mecánicos, disminuyendo o aumentando la susceptibilidad al daño. El objetivo del trabajo fue analizar los cambios en la pared celular durante la ontogenia y en respuesta al daño por impacto en cerezas con firmeza contrastante. Se determinaron la solubilización, despolimerización y composición de pectinas y glicanos entrecruzantes de la pared celular, en cuatro estadíos durante la ontogenia de cerezas firmes cv Sweetheart y blandas cv Newstar. Estas determinaciones también se realizaron a madurez comercial, en frutos expuestos a la simulación del daño por impacto, al caer libremente desde una altura de 70 cm, y se tomaron muestras 7 y 10 días después de producido el daño. Durante la ontogenia de los frutos blandos, se produjo la pérdida de ácidos urónicos (solubilización), despolimerización de glicanos entrecruzantes y pérdida de azúcares neutros, mientras que en los frutos firmes se observaron la despolimerización de glicanos entrecruzantes y la pérdida de azúcares neutros. El efecto del daño mecánico produjo en los frutos blandos una disminución de los ácidos urónicos y la pérdida de azúcares neutros (arabinosa, galactosa y xilosa), como así también la despolimerización de pectinas y de glicanos entrecruzantes. En conclusión, en frutos blandos la solubilización de pectinas podría ser el mayor causante del ablandamiento y más aún cuando se produce la despolimerización de pectinas y glicanos entrecruzantes después de producido el daño mecánico. Los frutos firmes presentaron una estructura péctica más conservada durante ontogenia y daño mecánico, sin variaciones en el contenido de cadenas laterales

Preliminary studies on the effect of the increased biodiversity on the population dynamics of Caliroa cerasi L. (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae), and its natural enemy Trichogramma minutum R. (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) in a sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) orchard in Virch (Southern Patagonia Argentina)

p.25-36

Comportamiento en el vivero de portainjertos micropropagados del género Prunus : 2 - crecimiento de los cvs. Fantasía y Forastero

p.165-170

Efecto de reguladores de crecimiento en plantas jóvenes de ciruelo Cv. Golden Japan (Prunus salicina Lindl.)

p.143-149

Preliminary studies on the effect of the increased biodiversity on the population dynamics of Caliroa cerasi L. (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae), and its natural enemy Trichogramma minutum R. (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) in a sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) orchard in Virch (Southern Patagonia Argentina)

p.25-36

Distribución del endrino (Prunus spinosa L.) en Navarra

Se propone una representación de la distribución actual del endrino (Prunus spinosa L.) en Navarra. Para la canfección del mapa se dividió la superficie de Navarra según una malla cuadrada de 10 km. de lado. En cada cuadricula se realizaron recorridos detallados que permitieron conocer el grado de presencia de la especie estudiada.

Comportamento pós-colheita da ameixa 'Raínha Cláudia Verde' Prunus domestica L. : efeitos do cálcio na maturação

`Rainha Cláudia Verde' é uma antiga variedade da ameixeira europeia Prunus domestica L. que se encontra bem adaptada a uma zona restrita do Alto Alentejo. Esta variedade é utilizada para o consumo em fresco e na doçaria regional, onde se emprega na confecção das famosas 'Ameixas D'Elvas'. A confitagem é a técnica utilizada na confecção deste produto com denomicação de origem protegida, e que faz parte de um saber tradicional muito divulgado na região. As informações que resultam de evidências práticas mostram que nem todos os frutos reagem da mesma forma à fase da cozedura. Existem zonas específicas que produzem frutos que não se adequara processo da confitagem, apresentando uma textura imprópria após a cozedura. Recentemente, e com o aumento das áreas produtoras, verificou-se que os frutos destas regiões específicas para além de inadequados para a cozedura, também apresentavam uma menor capacidade de conservação em fresco. Assim durante a conservação estes frutos, quando comparados com os das outras regiões, apresentavam uma perda de firmeza mais rápida tornando-se mais difíceis de comercializar. Entre os factores culturais que contribuem para a qualidade pós-colheita dos frutos, o teor de cálcio presente no solo e nos frutos apresenta-se corno um dos mais importantes. O cálcio é um dos nutrientes que mais frequentemente é associado à manutenção da estrutura das paredes celulares das plantas, estando envolvido directamente na redução das perdas de textura dos frutos. Tendo em consideração os aspectos anteriormente referidos, foi delineado um trabalho que teve início com a selecção de dois pomares geograficamente distantes, e que tradicionalmente produziam frutos com diferentes comportamentos quer durante a conservação quer durante a confitagem. Associada ao conhecimento empírico, a prévia indicação de que estes pomares apresentavam concentrações cle cálcio foliar significativamente diferentes, contribuiu também para a sua selecção. O objectivo geral desta tese foi o de investigar o comportamento pós-colheita da `Rainha Cláudia Verde' particularmente a influência do cálcio na textura dos frutos. Definiram-se os seguintes objectivos específicos: (1) determinar a influência do porta-enxerto e do solo na concentração de cálcio dos frutos e as respectivas consequências, no seu comportamento pós-colheita; (2) seleccionar um método que permitisse avaliar a produção de etileno dos frutos e consequentemente a atribuição da designação de fruto climatérico ou não climatérico a esta variedade; (3) avaliar os e Feitos durante a conservação, de diferentes níveis de cálcio nos frutos; (4) quantificar nos frutos os níveis de cálcio da parede celular e avaliar a sua influência na firmeza dos frutos; (5) seleccionar as melhores temperaturas de conservação para os frutos desta variedade. Os resultados apresentados nesta tese indicam que a variedade 'Rainha Cláudia Verde' é uma variedade de frutos climatéricos que apresentam uma acentuada perda de textura após a colheita. Durante a conservação frigorífica os frutos apresentaram comportamentos diferentes, de acordo com a sua origem. Os frutos com origem no pomar que tradicionalmente não produz frutos aptos a serem confitados, apresentam simultaneamente uma mais rápida perda de firmeza quando comparados com os frutos dos outros pomares. Sendo que o menor teor de cálcio nos frutos leva a que a diminuição da firmeza da polpa ocorra mais rapidamente. No entanto à colheita não se observaram diferenças significativas da firmeza da polpa dos frutos. Esta informação parece indicar que outros factores, além do nível de cálcio dos frutos, poderão estar implicados na firmeza revelada à colheita. Por outro lado os frutos com epiderme revelaram diferenças de firmeza nos testes efectuados à colheita. O efeito da epiderme na firmeza dos frutos à colheita parece indicar que outros factores tais como o estado de hidratação dos frutos poderão contribuir para o aumento desta característica dos frutos. Apesar do teor de cálcio dos frutos melhorar o seu comportamento durante a conservação, a sua influência na emissão de etileno não foi evidente. O aumento do teor de cálcio nos frutos pode conseguir-se através de uma selecção adequada do porta-enxerto. Os porta-enxertos estudados induziram quantidades diferentes de cálcio nos frutos, aparentemente contribuindo o vigor do porta-enxerto para um efeito de diluição do cálcio na árvore. O estudo da influência do solo no teor do cálcio dos frutos revelou que os frutos com menor capacidade de conservação provinham de solos com maiores teores de cálcio, e que na sua constituição apresentavam uma menor concentração de cálcio na polpa. Apresenta-se ainda a hipótese de que o excesso de potássio presente nestes solos possa ter contribuído para um menor teor de cálcio nos frutos. De facto os frutos com uma razão Ca/K superior apresentaram também uma firmeza superior./ ABSTRACT - `Raínha Claudia Verde' is an old variety of Prunus domestica which is well adapted to a restrict zone of Alto Alentejo in the south region of Portugal. This variety is much appreciated either as a fresh fruit or as a sweet candy. The candying process is a widespread technique in this region with much empirical knowledge. There are practical evidences which indicate that fruits origin may influence the boiling process. Some fruits produced in specific areas in this region had an inadequate behaviour during boiling, becoming to soft and improper to use in canding. More recently it has been also observed that these specific areas produced fruits with a poor postharvest behaviour. During storage these fruits loose texture very quickly and became improper to commercialize. Many pre and postharvest factors may contribute to differences in fruit quality. calcium is one of most important nutrients which have a major effect on cell wall structure and membrane integrity. Studies on the role of calcium in fruits indicate its involvement in delaying changes associated with softening. Two orchards were selected because of their history of producing fruits with different characteristics either as a fresh or as a processed fruit, and because induced different calcium levels in the leaves. The main focus of this research work was to study the influence of the production region in fruit postharvest behaviour, specially the influence of calcium in fruit texture. The aims were: (1) to compare the rootstock and the soil influence on calcium fruit content, (2) to select a method- to measure the production of ethylene in fruits of 'Raínha Claudia Verde' (3) to evaluate the effects of different calcium fruit content in the postharvest behaviour of fruits (4) to evaluate the cell wall calcium content and its influence in fruit firmness, (5) and to select the best cold storage temperatures to this variety. It was found that 'Raínha Claudia Verde' is a climacteric variety and the studies on fruit firmness revealed a significant loss of fruit texture during ripening on or off the tree. During storage, fruits had a different behaviour depending on fruits origin. Usually fruits, which traditionally do not resist to boiling process, also exhibited an early softening, when compared to other fruits produced in adequate regions. The excessive fruit softening after harvest occurred in fruits with lower calcium content. However, at harvest, fruits from both orchards exhibited a similar firmness which may indicate that other factors besides calcium should be implicated in fruit firmness at harvest. In spite of a better postharvest behaviour of fruits with higher calcium content, it was not evident the calcium influence in the climacteric rise. The increase of calcium fruit content can be achieved with a proper rootstock selection. The rootstocks investigated in this study, induced different calcium fruit content, apparently vigorous rootstocks contributed to the dilution of calcium fruit level. The soil with higher calcium content induced a lower calcium fruit content, which may be due to the excess of potassium in this soil; in fact fruits with higher Ca/K ratio reached higher firmness values. It is also proposed a method to evaluate the calcium content in the fruit independently of fruit mass. The calcium fruit content is usually expressed as a percentage of dry mass, however during the course of fruit development there are a huge increment of fruit weight because of water and sugar mobilization into the fruit. Most of the total calcium in the plants is associated with the cell wall which means that calcium fruit content expressed as a percentage of cell wall fraction is a much more reliable method. Orchards with an excess of potassium in the soil produced fruits with a significant lower calcium fruit content. However it was not possible to prove the gradually firmness decrease during the harvest period as a consequence of calcium fruit loss. In fact, it was not evident a gradual decrease of calcium fruit content during the harvest dates thus it was impossible to find at harvest, a good correlation between fruit firmness and calcium fruit content. The analysis of cell wall polysaccharides evaluated during ripening in the tree showed a slight increase of more branched polysaccharides as ripening went. The small changes in pectic polysaccharides during the harvest season are in accordance with the small decrease in tissue firmness during this period. In this variety the usual storage period is about of 3-4weeks with a temperature of 1-2°C and 90% of relative humidity. However upon rewarming fruits held at 7°C, during 14 days, produced more ethylene at 20°C and exhibited also a higher firmness than fruits held at PC. The reduction of ethylene production and fruit firmness upon rewarming, after fruits being held at lower temperatures, may suggest some chilling injury in this variety.

The influence of commercial film-forming polymers on reducing salt spray injury in evergreen oak (Quercus ilex L.) and laurel (Prunus laurocerasus L.)

A field trial was undertaken to determine the influence of four commercially available film-forming polymers (Bond [alkyl phenyl hydroxyl polyoxyethylene], Newman Crop Spray 11E™ [paraffinic oil], Nu-Film P [poly-1-p menthene], and Spray Gard [di-1-p menthene]) on reducing salt spray injury on two woody species, evergreen oak (Quercus ilex L.) and laurel (Prunus laurocerasus L.). Irrespective of species, the film-forming polymers Nu-Film-P and Spay Gard did not provide any significant degree of protection against salt spray damage irrespective of concentration (1% or 2%) applied as measured by leaf chlorophyll concentrations, photosynthetic efficiency, visual leaf necrosis, foliar sodium and chloride content, and growth (height, leaf area). The film-forming polymer Newman Crop Spray 11E™ provided only 1-week protection against salt spray injury. The film-forming polymer Bond provided a significant (P < 0.05) degree of protection against salt spray injury 3 months after application as manifest by higher leaf chlorophyll content, photosynthetic efficiency, height and leaf area, and lower visual leaf necrosis and foliar Na and Cl content compared with nontreated controls. In conclusion, results indicate that application of a suitable film-forming polymer can provide a significant degree of protection of up to 3 months against salt spray injury in evergreen oak and laurel. Results also indicate that when applied at 1% or 2% solutions, no problems associated with phytotoxicity and rapid degradation on the leaf surface exist.

Pegamento e crescimento inicial de enxertos do pessegueiro 'Aurora-1' em clones de umezeiro (Prunus mume Sieb. et Zucc.) e 'Okinawa' [Prunus persica (L.) Batsch] propagados por estacas herbáceas

O presente estudo teve por objetivo avaliar o pegamento e o crescimento inicial de enxertos do pessegueiro 'Aurora-1' em clones de umezeiro (Prunus mume Sieb. et Zucc.) e 'Okinawa' [Prunus persica (L.) Batsch] propagados por estacas herbáceas. Realizaram-se dois experimentos, adotando-se a enxertia de borbulhia por escudo (março) e borbulhia por escudo modificada (julho). Com os resultados obtidos, pode-se concluir que é viável a realização da enxertia do 'Aurora-1' nos Clones 05; 10 e 15 de umezeiro e no 'Okinawa', tanto em março quanto em julho, com as metodologias utilizadas. O 'Okinawa' induz crescimento mais rápido ao enxerto, de forma que o ponto máximo do comprimento é atingido em tempo menor.