Energy and raw material consumption analysis of powder bed fusion: case study: CNC machining and laser additive manufacturing

Laser additive manufacturing (LAM), known also as 3D printing, is a powder bed fusion (PBF) type of additive manufacturing (AM) technology used to manufacture metal parts layer by layer by assist of laser beam. The development of the technology from building just prototype parts to functional parts is due to design flexibility. And also possibility to manufacture tailored and optimised components in terms of performance and strength to weight ratio of final parts. The study of energy and raw material consumption in LAM is essential as it might facilitate the adoption and usage of the technique in manufacturing industries. The objective this thesis was find the impact of LAM on environmental and economic aspects and to conduct life cycle inventory of CNC machining and LAM in terms of energy and raw material consumption at production phases. Literature overview in this thesis include sustainability issues in manufacturing industries with focus on environmental and economic aspects. Also life cycle assessment and its applicability in manufacturing industry were studied. UPLCI-CO2PE! Initiative was identified as mostly applied exiting methodology to conduct LCI analysis in discrete manufacturing process like LAM. Many of the reviewed literature had focused to PBF of polymeric material and only few had considered metallic materials. The studies that had included metallic materials had only measured input and output energy or materials of the process and compared to different AM systems without comparing to any competitive process. Neither did any include effect of process variation when building metallic parts with LAM. Experimental testing were carried out to make dissimilar samples with CNC machining and LAM in this thesis. Test samples were designed to include part complexity and weight reductions. PUMA 2500Y lathe machine was used in the CNC machining whereas a modified research machine representing EOSINT M-series was used for the LAM. The raw material used for making the test pieces were stainless steel 316L bar (CNC machined parts) and stainless steel 316L powder (LAM built parts). An analysis of power, time, and the energy consumed in each of the manufacturing processes on production phase showed that LAM utilises more energy than CNC machining. The high energy consumption was as result of duration of production. Energy consumption profiles in CNC machining showed fluctuations with high and low power ranges. LAM energy usage within specific mode (standby, heating, process, sawing) remained relatively constant through the production. CNC machining was limited in terms of manufacturing freedom as it was not possible to manufacture all the designed sample by machining. And the one which was possible was aided with large amount of material removed as waste. Planning phase in LAM was shorter than in CNC machining as the latter required many preparation steps. Specific energy consumption (SEC) were estimated in LAM based on the practical results and assumed platform utilisation. The estimated platform utilisation showed SEC could reduce when more parts were placed in one build than it was in with the empirical results in this thesis (six parts).

Metal additive manufacturing of internal flow channels with powder bed fusion processes

This thesis studies the advantages, disadvantages and possibilities of additive manufacturing in making components with internal flow channels. These include hydraulic components, components with cooling channels and heat exchangers. Processes studied in this work are selective laser sintering and selective laser melting of metallic materials. The basic principles of processes and parameters involved in the process are presented and different possibilities of internal channel manufacturing and flow improvement are introduced

Weldability of powder bed fusion fabricated stainless steel 316L sheets to cold rolled sheet metal

Weldability of powder bed fusion (PBF) fabricated components has come to discussion in past two years due to resent developments in the PBF technology and limited size of the machines used in the fabrication process. This study concentrated on effects of energy input of welding on mechanical properties and microstructural features of welds between PBF fabricated stainless steel 316L sheets and cold rolled sheet metal of same composition by the means of destructive testing and microscopic analysis. Optical fiber diameter, laser power and welding speed were varied during the experiments that were executed following one variable at a time (OVAT) method. One of the problems of welded PBF fabricated components has been lower elongations at break comparing to conventionally manufactured components. Decreasing energy input of the laser keyhole welding decreased elongations at break of the welded specimens. Ultimate tensile strengths were not affected significantly by the energy input of the welding, but fracturing of the specimens welded using high energy input occurred from the weld metal. Fracturing of the lower energy input welds occurred from the PBF fabricated base metal. Energy input was found to be critical factor for mechanical properties of the welds. Multioriented grain growth and formation of neck at fusion zone boundary on the cold rolled side of the weld was detected and suspected to be result from weld pool flows caused by differences in molten weld pool behaviour between the PBF fabricated and cold rolled sides of the welds.

Optimization of an innovative T6 heat treatment for the AlSi10Mg alloy processed by Laser-based Powder Bed Fusion: effect on microstructure, mechanical properties, and tribological behavior

Laser-based Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) technology is one of the most commonly used metal Additive Manufacturing (AM) techniques to produce highly customized and value-added parts. The AlSi10Mg alloy has received more attention in the L-PBF process due to its good printability, high strength/weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and relatively low cost. However, a deep understanding of the effect of heat treatments on this alloy's metastable microstructure is still required for developing tailored heat treatments for the L-PBF AlSi10Mg alloy to overcome the limits of the as-built condition. Several authors have already investigated the effects of conventional heat treatment on the microstructure and mechanical behavior of the L-PBF AlSi10Mg alloy but often overlooked the peculiarities of the starting supersatured and ultrafine microstructure induced by rapid solidification. For this reason, the effects of innovative T6 heat treatment (T6R) on the microstructure and mechanical behavior of the L-PBF AlSi10Mg alloy were assessed. The short solution soaking time (10 min) and the relatively low temperature (510 °C) reduced the typical porosity growth at high temperatures and led to a homogeneous distribution of fine globular Si particles in the Al matrix. In addition, it increased the amount of Mg and Si in the solid solution available for precipitation hardening during the aging step. The mechanical (at room temperature and 200 °C) and tribological properties of the T6R alloy were evaluated and compared with other solutions, especially with an optimized direct-aged alloy (T5 alloy). Results showed that the innovative T6R alloy exhibits the best mechanical trade-off between strength and ductility, the highest fatigue strength among the analyzed conditions, and interesting tribological behavior. Furthermore, the high-temperature mechanical performances of the heat-treated L-PBF AlSi10Mg alloy make it suitable for structural components operating in mild service conditions at 200 °C.

High-strength steels manufactured via Laser Powder Bed Fusion: effect of post-process heat treatments and surface finishing on microstructure and mechanical properties

Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) permits the manufacturing of parts with optimized geometry, enabling lightweight design of mechanical components in aerospace and automotive and the production of tools with conformal cooling channels. In order to produce parts with high strength-to-weight ratio, high-strength steels are required. To date, the most diffused high-strength steels for LPBF are hot-work tool steels, maraging and precipitation-hardening stainless steels, featuring different composition, feasibility and properties. Moreover, LPBF parts usually require a proper heat treatment and surface finishing, to develop the desired properties and reduce the high roughness resulting from LPBF. The present PhD thesis investigates the effect of different heat treatments and surface finishing on the microstructure and mechanical properties of a hot-work tool steel and a precipitation-hardening stainless steel manufactured via LPBF. The bibliographic section focuses on the main aspects of LPBF, hot-work tool steels and precipitation-hardening stainless steels. The experimental section is divided in two parts. Part A addresses the effect of different heat treatments and surface finishing on the microstructure, hardness, tensile and fatigue behaviour of a LPBF manufactured hot-work tool steel, to evaluate its feasibility for automotive and racing components. Results indicated the possibility to achieve high hardness and strength, comparable to the conventionally produced steel, but a great sensitivity of fatigue strength on defects and surface roughness resulting from LPBF. Part B investigates the effect of different heat treatments on the microstructure, hardness, tensile and notch-impact behaviour of a LPBF produced precipitation-hardening stainless steel, to assess its feasibility for tooling applications. Results indicated the possibility to achieve high hardness and strength also through a simple Direct Aging, enabling heat treatment simplification by exploiting the microstructural features resulting from LPBF.

Influenza dei difetti sul comportamento a fatica della lega AlSi10Mg prodotta con Laser Powder Bed Fusion

La tesi in oggetto ha lo scopo di valutare la fattibilità di sviluppare, sulla base di dati sperimentali, un metodo previsionale per il comportamento a fatica della lega AlSi10Mg prodotta mediante Laser Powder Bed Fusion, adattabile a componenti di dimensioni qualsiasi. La lega è stata trattata con invecchiamento diretto (T5) ottimizzato per ottenere una parziale riduzione delle tensioni residue senza comprometterne la durezza. Partendo da prove di fatica a flessione rotante condotte seguendo il metodo statistico Stair-Case per la definizione della resistenza a fatica, si vuole correlare il difetto killer, ossia quello che innesca la rottura del provino, alla caratterizzazione dei difetti condotta pre-prova con tomografia computerizzata ad alta risoluzione (µCT). Il difetto killer, osservato sulle superfici di frattura, viene analizzato in termini di dimensione, posizione e forma. Contemporaneamente è stato sviluppato un metodo per l’analisi dei difetti ottenuta con µCT tale da poter identificare quelli considerati più pericolosi, sulla base dello stato tensionale del campione, di posizione e dimensione dei difetti. Inoltre, è stata eseguita una caratterizzazione microstrutturale sulle sezioni trasversali dei campioni per valutare la quantità, dimensione e forma dei difetti e confrontarla con i dati di µCT. Per mostrare la relazione tra le dimensioni del difetto killer e la resistenza a fatica è stato adottato il diagramma di Kitagawa-Takahashi, con il modello di El Haddad. Dal confronto tra le metodologie è stata riscontrata una buona correlazione tra i difetti individuati come pericolosi dai dati di µCT e quelli che hanno effettivamente portato a rottura il campione, osservati in frattografia, supportando quindi la possibilità di sviluppare un metodo previsionale del comportamento a fatica. Quantitativamente, le dimensioni dei difetti killer sono nell’intervallo 90-130 µm e si trovano ad una distanza massima dalla superficie di non oltre 250 µm.

Aspetti microstrutturali, proprietà meccaniche e ottimizzazione del trattamento termico di un acciaio inossidabile PH processato con laser powder bed fusion

L’attività di ricerca svolta in questa tesi ha riguardato gli aspetti microstrutturali, le proprietà meccaniche e l’ottimizzazione del trattamento termico di un acciaio inossidabile indurente per precipitazione processato mediante tecnologia additiva Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF). I provini, realizzati presso il competence center Bi-REX (Bologna) e lavorati presso il laboratorio di Metallurgia del DIN, sono stati oggetto di vari trattamenti termici sperimentali in cui è stata fatta variare la temperatura e la durata di mantenimento in forno, al fine di identificare la combinazione ottimale di temperatura e tempo sia per la fase di solubilizzazione che di invecchiamento. Nello specifico, la scelta dei parametri di solubilizzazione e invecchiamento è stata fatta solo sulla base dei trend di durezza. Da queste attività sono stati scelti i parametri di trattamento che garantissero elevata durezza, prossima alla massima ottenibile, senza durate di invecchiamento eccessive. L'esito della sperimentazione ha permesso di ridurre sensibilmente temperatura e durata di solubilizzazione rispetto al trattamento benchmark senza penalizzazione della durezza risultante. Dopodiché è stata eseguita una caratterizzazione microstrutturale e meccanica dell’acciaio, in termini di durezza, trazione e resilienza, per confrontare il trattamento termico ottimizzato con la condizione As-Built (AB) e con il trattamento termico standard indicato dal produttore. L’elevata durezza misurata dopo invecchiamento si deve alla presenza di precipitati di rinforzo in grado di ostacolare il moto delle dislocazioni. Le prove meccaniche hanno confermato l’ottenimento di elevata resistenza a snervamento e a trazione, superiore al benchmark, ma di un basso allungamento a rottura e bassissima resilienza a causa di difetti quali porosità, mancate fusioni e spattering. Infine, lo studio delle superfici di frattura ha permesso di analizzare i meccanismi di rottura dei campioni di trazione e resilienza.

Ossidazione anodica al plasma della lega di alluminio A357 prodotta mediante Laser - Powder Bed Fusion: microstruttura e comportamento tribologico

In questo elaborato è stato analizzato il comportamento tribologico della lega di alluminio A357 realizzata tramite Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF). In particolare, è stato studiato l’effetto del processo di anodizzazione ECO (ElectroChemical Oxidation) su tale lega, sia allo stato as-built che dopo trattamento termico T6R, in termini di attrito e usura a temperatura ambiente (i.e. 25°C) e a 200°C. Lo studio tribologico è stato svolto mediante prove di strisciamento non lubrificato in moto reciprocante (geometria ball-on-disc contro allumina). Nella prima parte del lavoro sono state effettuate prove a temperatura ambiente, su strati ECO a rugosità variabile, con carichi applicati nell’intervallo 1-8N. Nella seconda parte l’attività sperimentale si è invece rivolta al confronto nel comportamento tribologico della lega a 25°C e 200°C, mantenendo il carico invariato pari a 1 N e analizzando la risposta in termini di attrito e usura, sia per campioni rivestiti ECO che per campioni non rivestiti. Il rivestimento anodico ha mostrato a temperatura ambiente una maggiore resistenza ad usura quando applicato su superfici pre-lucidate, nonostante un maggiore coefficiente di attrito, dando luogo a cedimento completo ad un carico di 8 N (contro i 5 N del non lucidato). Dalla seconda fase di questo studio è invece risultato come il rivestimento ECO abbia notevolmente migliorato la resistenza ad usura rispetto al materiale non rivestito, sia a 25°C che a 200°C, mantenendo invariato il coefficiente d’attrito all’aumentare della temperatura, al contrario dei campioni A357 non rivestiti, che hanno invece manifestato un aumento del coefficiente di attrito di circa il doppio. Vale inoltre la pena notare come la pre-lucidatura ed il trattamento termico dei campioni A357 ECO siano risultati superflui in termini di comportamento tribologico; i campioni a superficie rugosa hanno dato luogo addirittura a minori coefficienti di attrito sia a 25°C che a 200°C, a parità di profondità d’usura.

Studio del comportamento meccanico e tribologico della lega AlSi10Mg prodotta mediante Laser-based Powder Bed Fusion sottoposta ad un ciclo tecnologico ottimizzato

AlSi10Mg alloy is one of the most widely used alloys for producing structural components by Laser-based Powder Fusion (L-PBF) technology due to the high mechanical and technological properties. The present work aims to characterize mechanically and tribologically the L-PBF AlSi10Mg alloy subjected to both heat treatment and surface modification cycles. Specifically, the effects of three heat treatments on the tribological and mechanical properties of the alloy were analyzed: T5 (artificial aging at 160 °C for 4 h), T6 rapid solution heat treatment (solution heat treatment at 510 °C for 1h and aging at 160 °C for 6 h), and T6 benchmark (solution heat treatment at 540 °C for 1h and aging at 160 °C for 4 h), the latter used as a benchmark. The study highlighted how the better balance between strength and ductility properties induced by the introduction of heat treatments leads to lower wear resistance and not significant variations in the friction coefficient of the alloy. The tribological and mechanical behavior of the alloy coated with two different coating structures, consisting of (i) chemical Ni (Ni-P) and (ii) Ni-P + DLC, was also evaluated. The goal was the identification of a deposition cycle such as to guarantee the optimization of the mechanical and tribological behavior of the alloy. The Ni-P coating provided good wear resistance but an increase in the coefficient of friction. In contrast, using the DLC top coating resulted in excellent tribological performance in wear resistance and friction coefficient. The samples characterized by the Ni-P + DLC multilayer coating were subsequently subjected to mechanical characterization. The results obtained highlighted problems of adhesion and incipient breaking of the material due to the different mechanical behavior of the coating, considerably reducing the mechanical performance of the alloy coated with Ni-P+DLC multilayer solution compared to the specimens in the un-coated condition.

Effetto della sabbiatura sul comportamento a fatica della lega AlSi10Mg prodotta con Laser Powder Bed Fusion e trattata termicamente

La tesi in oggetto ha lo scopo di determinare l’effetto della sabbiatura sul comportamento a fatica della lega AlSi10Mg prodotta mediante Laser Powder Bed Fusion e trattata termicamente. I parametri di processo e di trattamento termico (T5 e T6) sono stati precedentemente ottimizzati. Al fine di determinare l’effetto della sabbiatura su topografia superficiale e microstruttura dei campioni, si sono condotte molteplici analisi avvalendosi di strumenti quali profilometria, microscopia ottica ed in scansione, analisi di tensioni residue con diffrazione a raggi X e prove di durezza. Attraverso prove di fatica per flessione rotante, eseguite secondo il metodo Stair-Case per la determinazione della resistenza a fatica, e successiva caratterizzazione delle superfici di frattura si vuole correlare il difetto killer, ossia quello responsabile del cedimento per fatica, alle caratteristiche morfologiche e microstrutturali. Il difetto killer viene caratterizzato in termini di dimensione e distanza dalla superficie e per mostrare la relazione fra la dimensione del difetto killer e la resistenza a fatica si adotta il diagramma di Kitagawa-Takahashi con modellazione di Murakami ed EL Haddad. Si è evidenziato che tutti i difetti killer sono riconducibili a lack-of-fusion con dimensione superiore ai 100 μm ad una profondità compresa fra i 150 e i 200 μm, indipendentemente dal trattamento termico o meccanico applicato. In termini di fatica si osserva che il trattamento T6 conferisce al materiale migliori proprietà rispetto a quello T5. Il processo di sabbiatura, confrontato con quello di lucidatura superficiale, ha portato a miglioramenti in termini di durezza e tensioni residue di compressione, ma si è rivelato quasi ininfluente sulla resistenza a fatica. Sulla base di quanto sopra, si conferma la possibilità di applicazione della sabbiatura in ambito industriale a componenti meccanici, anche in sostituzione della lucidatura, ottenendo un beneficio anche economico.

Katsaus lisäävän valmistuksen (aka 3D-tulostus) mahdollisuuksiin ja kustannuksiin metallisten tuotteiden valmistuksessa: Case jauhepetitekniikka

Suurelle yleisölle lisäävä valmistustekniikka eli ns. 3D-tulostustekniikka näyttäytyy lehtien otsikoissa ja artikkeleissa esiin pulpahtavana ”muotiaiheena”, mutta sekä muovien 3D-tulostustekniikka että metallienkin vastaava valmistustekniikka on ollut olemassa maailmalla ja Suomessa 80-luvun puolivälistä alkaen. Yhdysvalloissa ja Saksassa tekniikkaa käytetään valmistavassa teollisuudessa toiminnallisten osien tuotannossa. Esimerkiksi lentokoneen suihkumoottorien osia ja lääketieteellisiä välineitä tehdään metallijauheesta lisäävän valmistuksen avulla. Itse asiassa eräs menetelmä metalliesineiden valmistamiseksi lasersäteen avulla keksittiin Suomessa ja sitä myös kehiteltiin täällä, mutta teollisuudenala lähti aikanaan nousuun Saksassa. Lisäävä valmistus on tällä hetkellä maailmanlaajuisesti eräs kiinnostavista tuotantotekniikoista, jonka uskotaan muuttavan monia asioita tuotteiden suunnittelussa, toiminnoissa ja valmistuksessa. Tämä tekniikka ei kiinnosta pelkästään valmistavaa teollisuutta, vaan tietotekniikan, lääketieteen, koruvalmistuksen ja muotoilun osaajat sekä uusien liiketoimintamallien kehittäjät ja logistiikka operaattorit ovat teknologiasta kiinnostuneita. Suomelle 3D-tulostustekniikka on suuri mahdollisuus, sillä maassamme on vahva teollinen tieto- ja viestintätekniikkaosaaminen sekä lisäksi olemme maassamme erikoistuneet varsin vaativien teollisiin laitteiden valmistukseen. Eräät suurimmista mahdollisuuksista tällä tekniikalla ovat toimitusketjuihin liittyvät muutokset. Uutta on, että pienetkin yritykset ja organisaatiot voivat soveltaa tätä tekniikkaa valmistuksessa ja jopa kehitellä täysin uusia tuotteita. On myös arvioitu, että lisäävän valmistuksen merkitys valmistustapoihin ja toimitusketjuihin voi olla suurempi kuin koskaan aikaisemmin minkään teknologisen uudistuksen kohdalla. Lisäävästä valmistuksesta usein puhutaankin kolmantena teollisena vallankumouksena juuri tämän takia. 3D-tulostuksen kustannuksia tarkasteltaessa on tärkeätä huomata että vain sulatetun jauheen määrä ratkaisee, ei käytettävän geometrian monimutkaisuus. Tämä erottaa perinteisen ja lisäävän valmistuksen toisistaan. Perinteisesti kappaleen keventäminen on maksanut ”ylimääräistä”, kun taas lisäävässä valmistuksessa kappaleen keveys on jopa kustannusta alentava tekijä. Valmistettavan kappaleen korkeus on yksi kriittisimpiä kustannuksiin vaikuttavia tekijöitä. Tämän vuoksi useamman kappaleen valmistus yhdellä kertaa parantaa kannattavuutta huomattavasti. Samalla kertaa voi ja itse asiassa kannattaakin valmistaa keskenään erilaisia kappaleita. Perinteiset valmistustavat sen sijaan ovat nykyajan vaatimuksille liian hitaita; ne joustavat huonosti, kun kyseessä on pienet, asiakaslähtöiset erät. Trendi on globaalisti kohden yksilöllisiä asiakaslähtöisiä tuotteita, jolloin myös valmistustekniikoiden on oltava joustavia pysyäkseen näiden vaatimusten perässä. Lisäävä valmistus sopii erityisesti hyvin piensarjatuotantoon. Suuremmissa valmistuserissä kuitenkin perinteiset tekniikat ovat kustannustehokkaampia.

Characterization of design of a product for additive manufacturing

The purpose of conducting this thesis is to gather around information about additive manufacturing and to design a product to be additively manufactured. The specific manufacturing method dealt with in this thesis, is powder bed fusion of metals. Therefore when mentioning additive manufacturing in this thesis, it is referred to powder bed fusion of metals. The literature review focuses on the principle of powder bed fusion, the general process chain in additive manufacturing, design rules for additive manufacturing. Examples of success stories in additive manufacturing and reasons for selecting parts to be manufactured with additive manufacturing are also explained in literature review. This knowledge is demanded to understand the experimental part of the thesis. The experimental part of the thesis is divided into two parts. Part A concentrates on finding proper geometry for building self-supporting pipes and proper parameters for support structures of them. Part B of the experimental part concentrates on a case study of designing a product for additive manufacturing. As a result of experimental part A, the design process of self-supporting pipes, results of visual analysis and results of 3D scanning are presented. As a result of experimental part B the design process of the product is presented and compared to the original model.

Process Monitoring and Defect Detection of Additive Manufacturing Using Inline Coherent Imaging

With applications ranging from aerospace to biomedicine, additive manufacturing (AM) has been revolutionizing the manufacturing industry. The ability of additive techniques, such as selective laser melting (SLM), to create fully functional, geometrically complex, and unique parts out of high strength materials is of great interest. Unfortunately, despite numerous advantages afforded by this technology, its widespread adoption is hindered by a lack of on-line, real time feedback control and quality assurance techniques. In this thesis, inline coherent imaging (ICI), a broadband, spatially coherent imaging technique, is used to observe the SLM process in 15 - 45 $\mu m$ 316L stainless steel. Imaging of both single and multilayer builds is performed at a rate of 200 $kHz$, with a resolution of tens of microns, and a high dynamic range rendering it impervious to blinding from the process beam. This allows imaging before, during, and after laser processing to observe changes in the morphology and stability of the melt. Galvanometer-based scanning of the imaging beam relative to the process beam during the creation of single tracks is used to gain a unique perspective of the SLM process that has been so far unobservable by other monitoring techniques. Single track processing is also used to investigate the possibility of a preliminary feedback control parameter based on the process beam power, through imaging with both coaxial and 100 $\mu m$ offset alignment with respect to the process beam. The 100 $\mu m$ offset improved imaging by increasing the number of bright A-lines (i.e. with signal greater than the 10 $dB$ noise floor) by 300\%. The overlap between adjacent tracks in a single layer is imaged to detect characteristic fault signatures. Full multilayer builds are carried out and the resultant ICI images are used to detect defects in the finished part and improve upon the initial design of the build system. Damage to the recoater blade is assessed using powder layer scans acquired during a 3D build. The ability of ICI to monitor SLM processes at such high rates with high resolution offers extraordinary potential for future advances in on-line feedback control of additive manufacturing.

Additive Manufacturing by LPBF and WAAM of metals: correlation between production process, microstructure and mechanical properties

In the most recent years, Additive Manufacturing (AM) has drawn the attention of both academic research and industry, as it might deeply change and improve several industrial sectors. From the material point of view, AM results in a peculiar microstructure that strictly depends on the conditions of the additive process and directly affects mechanical properties. The present PhD research project aimed at investigating the process-microstructure-properties relationship of additively manufactured metal components. Two technologies belonging to the AM family were considered: Laser-based Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) and Wire-and-Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM). The experimental activity was carried out on different metals of industrial interest: a CoCrMo biomedical alloy and an AlSi7Mg0.6 alloy processed by LPBF, an AlMg4.5Mn alloy and an AISI 304L austenitic stainless steel processed by WAAM. In case of LPBF, great attention was paid to the influence that feedstock material and process parameters exert on hardness, morphological and microstructural features of the produced samples. The analyses, targeted at minimizing microstructural defects, lead to process optimization. For heat-treatable LPBF alloys, innovative post-process heat treatments, tailored on the peculiar hierarchical microstructure induced by LPBF, were developed and deeply investigated. Main mechanical properties of as-built and heat-treated alloys were assessed and they were well-correlated to the specific LPBF microstructure. Results showed that, if properly optimized, samples exhibit a good trade-off between strength and ductility yet in the as-built condition. However, tailored heat treatments succeeded in improving the overall performance of the LPBF alloys. Characterization of WAAM alloys, instead, evidenced the microstructural and mechanical anisotropy typical of AM metals. Experiments revealed also an outstanding anisotropy in the elastic modulus of the austenitic stainless-steel that, along with other mechanical properties, was explained on the basis of microstructural analyses.

Metal additive manufacturing of soft magnetic material for electric machines

This research work concerns the application of additive manufacturing (AM) technologies in new electric mobility sectors. The unmatched freedom that AM offers can potentially change the way electric motors are designed and manufactured. The thesis investigates the possibility of creating optimized electric machines that exploit AM technologies, with potential in various industrial sectors, including automotive and aerospace. In particular, we will evaluate how the design of electric motors can be improved by producing the rotor core using Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) and how the resulting design choices affect component performance. First, the metallurgical and soft magnetic properties of the pure iron and silicon iron alloy parts (Fe-3% wt.Si) produced by LPBF will be defined and discussed, considering the process parameters and the type of heat treatment. This research shows that using LPBF, both pure iron and iron silicon, the parts have mechanical and magnetic properties different from the laminated ones. Hence, FEM-based modeling will be employed to design the rotor core of an SYN RM machine to minimize torque ripple while maintaining structural integrity. Finally, we suggest that further research should extend the field of applicability to other electrical devices.