Demographics, pollination syndrome and conservation status of Macrozamia platyrhachis (Zamiaceae), a geographically restricted Queensland cycad

To assess the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) status of Macrozamia platyrhachis F.M.Bailey, we surveyed this central Queensland cycad for its population abundance and health and its pollinator type and pollination syndrome (thermogenesis and volatile emissions). Plants are locally abundant within the 11 discrete populations surveyed, with an estimated population of 611 315 adult plants. Plants are highly restricted to a small area of occupancy, seed dispersal is nearly non-existent and extreme fires appear to have destroyed almost all seeds and seedlings and decimated the pollinators. Of known Macrozamia pollinators, only the thrips, Cycadothrips chadwicki Mound, were found on cones, and these were found in very low numbers. The pollination syndrome for this cycad appears to be unique, based on two cone traits. For one, thermogenesis peaks in early evening, a contrast with daytime peaks of other Cycadothrips-pollinated Macrozamia, but matches that of the Tranes weevil-pollinated Macrozamia machinii. In addition, cone volatiles include both previously unreported compounds as well as those reported exclusively on either Cycadothrips- or Tranes-pollinated species. Based on its small, fragmented area of occupancy, projected population declines and the unique pollination syndrome, we recommend that M. platyrhachis retain its current status as 'Endangered'. Habitat management plans should stipulate that controlled burns be avoided during cycad coning season and that wildfires be controlled to minimise damage to seedlings and pollinators.

Pollination and dispersal systems in a Cerrado remnant (Brazilian Savanna) in Southeastern Brazil

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

中国兜兰属植物的传粉生态学研究

兰科植物多样化的花部性状和复杂的传粉系统为我们研究传粉者与花部性状关系提供了材料，兰科植物的多样性被认为是适应于多样化特化传粉者的结果。对同属不同形态的兰科植物进行传粉生态学观察，对于了解花部性状与传粉系统的关系，理解传粉者在花部进化中的作用具有重要意义。兜兰属植物是兰科植物中比较独特的类群，全世界约有69种，该属植物的花部性状（唇瓣形状、花部颜色）存在很大的差异。本文通过对我国4种具有不同花部性状的兜兰进行传粉生物学研究，探讨该属植物传粉机制与花部形状的关系和适应性进化等问题。 1.硬叶兜兰的传粉生物学 在贵州省东北部对硬叶兜兰传粉进行了连续4年的野外观察和实验，结果表明，硬叶兜兰是由蜂类传粉的，其中黄熊蜂是主要传粉者;硬叶兜兰不产生气味，主要依靠颜色来吸引传粉者。虽然传粉者主要为蜂类，但硬叶兜兰花还吸引了大量食蚜蝇访问者，并且蜂类和食蚜蝇在花上具有相似的行为。所以，硬叶兜兰的花信号是吸引“访问昆虫”，并不是专性吸引“传粉昆虫”的。虽然食蚜蝇类访问者也可以进入硬叶兜兰的传粉通道，但是硬叶兜兰传粉通道的大小决定了熊蜂为其主要传粉者，而频繁访花的食蚜蝇由于体形过小不能为硬叶兜兰传粉。 2.小叶兜兰和长瓣兜兰的传粉生物学 对小叶兜兰和长瓣兜兰的传粉生物学研究，证实了依据传粉综合征概念所作出的推测。小叶兜兰和长瓣兜兰都是由食蚜蝇传粉的，两种兜兰在观察地点的主要传粉者均为黑带食蚜蝇;并且它们都是依靠欺骗食蚜蝇传粉的。通过气味分析，我们发现小叶兜兰和长瓣兜兰都不产生气味，它们都是依靠颜色来欺骗传粉者的。但两种兜兰的欺骗机制存在差异，并且这种差异与花部颜色特征的不同相关。小叶兜兰黄色退化雄蕊的反射光谱符合觅食中的食蚜蝇对颜色的偏好，能有效的诱骗食蚜蝇传粉;长瓣兜兰则是利用花瓣基部的黑色突起和睫状毛模拟繁殖地（蚜虫）来欺骗雌性食蚜蝇。根据本实验结果，我们认为传粉综合征只是对应于不同的传粉选择压力而不是简单对应于传粉者种类，利用传粉综合征预测时还需要考虑生境和演化历史等因素对花部形态的影响，这样才可能得到有效的结果。 3. 带叶兜兰传粉生物学 在广西雅长自然保护区对带叶兜兰传粉进行了连续2年的野外观察。结果表明，带叶兜兰是自交亲和、需要昆虫传粉的欺骗性植物。紫纹异巴食蚜蝇是观察地点唯一的传粉者。虽然小叶兜兰和长瓣兜兰的主要传粉者——黑带食蚜蝇也会访问带叶兜兰，但因为胸高较大不能通过传粉通道，常常被卡死在带叶兜兰的传粉通道中。通过对比小叶兜兰、长瓣兜兰和带叶兜兰的传粉通道大小，以及相应的传粉者的大小，我们发现带叶兜兰具有比其它两种兜兰小的传粉通道，同时，带叶兜兰主要传粉者的胸高也比其它两种兜兰主要传粉者的胸高小。带叶兜兰的传粉通道可以起到限制传粉者种类的作用。此外，带叶兜兰可能是通过模拟食蚜蝇的繁殖地来吸引传粉者的。 4.兜兰属传粉系统的转变 综合已有的关于兜兰属传粉机制的报道以及本文的观察结果，并结合分子系统学证据。我们做出如下推测，兜兰属中存在由蜂类传粉向蝇类传粉转变的趋势，并且这种转变是由兜兰属植物花颜色对昆虫的吸引以及花结构（传粉通道大小）对访问昆虫选择的共同作用结果。兜兰属中较为原始的种类（如硬叶兜兰）可以同时吸引蜂类和蝇类访问者;通过花各部分性状的转变，特别是假雄蕊在颜色上的特化（反射光谱变化范围），或花萼和花瓣的黑色突起和睫状毛附属物对繁殖地（蚜虫）的模拟，处于较进化地位的兜兰属种类则专性吸引食蚜蝇。同样地，兜兰属中较为原始的种类具有较大的传粉通道，从而限制了蝇类访问者作为传粉者，但允许体形较大熊蜂类访问者成为有效传粉者;随着传粉通道的变小，兜兰属植物则仅允许体形较小的食蚜蝇成为有效传粉者。传粉通道越小，有效传粉者的选择余地就越窄。

Friends or relatives? Phylogenetics and species delimitation in the controversial European orchid Genus ophrys

Background and Aims Highly variable, yet possibly convergent, morphology and lack of sequence variation have severely hindered production of a robust phylogenetic framework for the genus Ophrys. The aim of this study is to produce this framework as a basis for more rigorous species delimitation and conservation recommendations. Methods Nuclear and plastid DNA sequencing and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) were performed on 85 accessions of Ophrys, spanning the full range of species aggregates currently recognized. Data were analysed using a combination of parsimony and Bayesian tree-building techniques and by principal coordinates analysis. Key Results Complementary phylogenetic analyses and ordinations using nuclear, plastid and AFLP datasets identify ten genetically distinct groups (six robust) within the genus that may in turn be grouped into three sections (treated as subgenera by some authors). Additionally, genetic evidence is provided for a close relationship between the O. tenthredinifera, O. bombyliflora and O. speculum groups. The combination of these analytical techniques provides new insights into Ophrys systematics, notably recognition of the novel O. umbilicata group. Conclusions Heterogeneous copies of the nuclear ITS region show that some putative Ophrys species arose through hybridization rather than divergent speciation. The supposedly highly specific pseudocopulatory pollination syndrome of Ophrys is demonstrably 'leaky', suggesting that the genus has been substantially over-divided at the species level.

Síndromes de polinização ocorrentes em uma área de Mata Atlântica, Paraíba, Brasil

ARAUJO, Afranio Cesar de et al. Síndromes de polinização ocorrentes em uma área de Mata Atlântica, Paraíba, Brasil. Biotemas, Florianopolis, v. 4, n. 22, p.83-94, dez. 2009. Disponível em: . Acesso em: 04 out. 2010.

Genética e biologia reprodutiva de vriesea minarum (Bromeliaceae): em busca de estratégias de conservação no quadrilátero ferrífero, minas gerais

Vriesea minarum is a rupiculous bromeliad species, with naturally fragmented populations, restricted to the Iron Quadrangle, Minas Gerais, Brazil. It is a threatened species, which is suffering from habitat loss due to the growth of cities and mining activities. The knowledge of genetic variability in plant populations is one of the main branches of conservation genetics, linking genetic data to conservation strategies while the knowledge about plant reproductive biology can aid in understanding key aspects of their life story, as well as in the comprehension of their distribution and survival strategies. Thus, the study of diversity, richness, and genetic structure, as well as the reproductive biology of populations of V. minarum can contribute to the development of conservation actions. Chapter 1 presents the transferability of 14 microsatellite loci for V. minarum. Among the results of this chapter, we highlight the successful transferability of 10 microsatellite loci described for other species of Bromeliaceae, all of which are polymorphic. In Chapter 2, we present the genetic analyses of 12 populations of V. minarum that are distributed throughout the Iron Quadrangle. We used the 10 microsatellite loci tested in Chapter 1. The results show a low population structuring (Fst = 0.088), but with different values of genetic richness (mean = 2.566) and gene diversity (mean = 0.635) for all populations; and a high inbreeding coefficient (Gis = 0.376). These may be the result of pollinators action and/or efficient seed dispersal, thus allowing a high connectivity among populations of naturally fragmented outcrops. The reproductive biology and floral morphology of a population of V. minarum, located in the Parque Estadual da Serra do Rola-Moça, are studied in Chapter 3. This reserve is the only public environmental protection area where the species occurs. As a result of field experiments and observations, we found that the species has its flowering period from January to March, with flowers that last for two days and that it has a mixed pollination syndrome. It is primarily alogamous, but also has the capacity to be self-ferilized. It is expected that data obtained in chapters 1, 2 and 3 serve as basis for other studies with species from the ferruginous rocky fields, since until now, to our knowledge, there are no other survey of endemic species from the Iron Quadrangle, seeking to merge the genetic knowledge, with the data of the reproductive biology, with the ultimate aim of biodiversity conservation. Considering the great habitat loss for the species by mining, it becomes crucial to analyze the creation of new protected areas for its conservation

Crab spiders (Araneae: Thomisidae) in flowering plants in a Brazilian Cerrado ecosystem

Ainda que aranhas Thomisidae sejam comumente encontradas em flores, as associações desses aracnídeos a espécies de plantas e às suas características florais foram pouco registradas na região neotropical. Observações do hábito das plantas, visitantes florais, e também das características florais, tais como antese, odor, forma, cor e recursos da flor, foram assinaladas para espécies floridas de uma área de cerrado presentes em uma trilha de 2 km de extensão. Misumenops argenteus e Misumenops pallens representaram 62,86% das aranhas habitantes de 22 espécies de plantas floridas. As plantas Senna rugosa (Fabaceae), Styrax ferrugineus (Styracaceae) e Banisteriopsis campestris (Malpighiaceae) abrigaram, individualmente, cerca de 10 a 17% do total das aranhas e, nestas plantas, a antese diurna; flores de coloração atrativa a abelhas, como amarela (S. rugosa), branca (S. ferrugineus) e rosa (B. campestris) e as anteras poricidas, bem como a visita das flores por abelhas reforçou a evidência de síndrome de polinização para melitofilia. Este é o primeiro levantamento de espécies de aranhas Thomisidae associadas a plantas do cerrado brasileiro.

Floral anatomy of Eriocaulon elichrysoides and Syngonanthus caulescens (Eriocaulaceae)

The floral anatomy of Eriocaulon elichrysoides Bong. and Syngonanthus caulescens (Poir.) Ruhland, from Brazilian mountain rock savannas (campos rupestres) was studied. The staminate flowers of E. elichrysoides present a diplostemonous androecium with six stamens, and those of S. caulescens present an isostemonous androecium with three stamens and three scalelike staminodes. Eriocaulon elichrysoides and S. caulescens have three nectariferous pistillodes located in the central portion of the receptacle. The pistillate flowers of E. elichrysoides present three simple styles while those of S. caulescens present three simple styles interspersed with three nectariferous appendices. Both the styles of E. elichrysoides and the nectariferous appendices of S. caulescens are vascularized by the dorsal vascular bundles of the carpels. The styles of S. caulescens lack vascularization. At the base of the gynoecium of E. elichrysoides there are six staminodes and there are three in the S. caulescens. Entomophily is suggested as the pollination syndrome in E. elichrysoides and S. caulescens as they present staminate and pistillate flowers with nectariferous structures. The ancestral character in Eriocaulon is probably given by the presence of the two staminal whorls. The staminate flowers of S. caulescens are probably derived from the reduction of a diplostemonous ancestral androecium. It remains open whether the pistillate flowers with nectariferous, appendices present an ancestral character or a derived one.

Developmental Morphology of a Dimorphic Grass Inflorescence: The Brazilian Bamboo Eremitis (Poaceae)

Premise of research.The highly specialized grass inflorescence varies with respect to phyllotaxis, with the reproductive meristem forming primary lateral branches that are either spirally arranged or distichous. The Brazilian bamboo Eremitis is highly unusual in that it has a dimorphic inflorescence, typically composed of an apical gynecandrous whorl of both male and female spikelets and basal whorls of male spikelets. Although not closely related to them, Eremitis shares some structural similarities with some early-divergent grasses.Methodology.We use SEM and LM to describe the development of the reproductive structures of Eremitis to clarify our understanding of the highly specialized grass inflorescence and flower.Pivotal results.Developmental studies show that the inflorescence of Eremitis is actually partially whorled and partially distichous. The apical whorl is abortive. The female spikelet is not terminal on the axis, in contrast with the majority of grasses. All the male spikelets are distichously attached to the inflorescence axis and separated into groups. There is a hollow style with two vascular bundles.Conclusions.The strong morphological similarities between Eremitis and some early-divergent grasses are here supplemented by several anatomical similarities, perhaps due to a shared pollination syndrome.

Ornithophily in the genus Salvia L. (Lamiaceae)

This dissertation presents for the first time a survey of bird pollinated (ornithophilous) Salvia species. Within the approximately 1000 species of the worldwide distributed genus roughly 20% (186 spp.) are bird pollinated. Excepting four species in the Old World (South Africa and Madagascar), ornithophilous species are restricted to the New World where they represent about one third of the species. They occur mainly in higher altitudes (1500-3000m) and usually grow as shrubs or perennial herbs (97%). The bilabiate to tubular flowers are often red (at least 49%), averaging 35mm (7-130mm) in length and produce a large to medium volume of nectar with rather low sugar concentration. Pollination by sunbirds and white-eyes is documented in a South African species, and that by hummingbirds in 16 species of the New World (USA, Mexico, Guatemala and Bolivia). Beside pollinator observations, the functionality of the staminal levers, the process of pollen transfer and the fitting between flowers and birds are tested by inserting museum skins and metal rods into fresh flowers. The most surprising result is the finding of two different main pollen transfer mechanisms. In at least 54% of the species an active staminal lever mechanism enables pollen deposition on the birds body. This is illustrated in detail in the South African S. lanceolata at which birds were observed to release the lever mechanism and became dusted with pollen. In contrast, the lever mechanism in about 35% of the New World species is reduced in different ways. Pollen transfer by inactive ‘levers’ is demonstrated in detail in S. haenkei in Bolivia, at which four pollinating hummingbird species could be observed. The tubular corolla forced the birds in a specific position, thereby causing pollen transfer from the exserted pollen-sacs to the birds body. With respect to the floral diversity and systematic affiliation of the species, parallel evolution of ornithophily and lever reduction is likely. Considering that bird pollinated species might have derived from bee pollinated species and that the staminal levers have become secondarily inactive, it is concluded that the shift in pollinators induced phenotypic changes even disabling such a sophisticated structure as the staminal lever mechanism.

Distinctive Convergence in Australian Floral Colours Seen Through the Eyes of Australian Birds

We used a colour-space model of avian vision to assess whether a distinctive bird pollination syndrome exists for floral colour among Australian angiosperms. We also used a novel phylogenetically based method to assess whether such a syndrome represents a significant degree of convergent evolution. About half of the 80 species in our sample that attract nectarivorous birds had floral colours in a small, isolated region of colour space characterized by an emphasis on long-wavelength reflection. The distinctiveness of this 'red arm' region was much greater when colours were modelled for violet-sensitive (VS) avian vision than for the ultraviolet-sensitive visual system. Honeyeaters (Meliphagidae) are the dominant avian nectarivores in Australia and have VS vision. Ancestral state reconstructions suggest that 31 lineages evolved into the red arm region, whereas simulations indicate that an average of five or six lineages and a maximum of 22 are likely to have entered in the absence of selection. Thus, significant evolutionary convergence on a distinctive floral colour syndrome for bird pollination has occurred in Australia, although only a subset of bird-pollinated taxa belongs to this syndrome. The visual system of honeyeaters has been the apparent driver of this convergence.

Tight Genetic Linkage of Prezygotic Barrier Loci Creates a Multifunctional Speciation Island in Petunia

Most flowering plants depend on animal vectors for pollination and seed dispersal. Differential pollinator preferences lead to premating isolation and thus reduced gene flow between interbreeding plant populations [1, 2, 3 and 4]. Sets of floral traits, adapted to attract specific pollinator guilds, are called pollination syndromes [5]. Shifts in pollination syndromes have occurred surprisingly frequently [6], considering that they must involve coordinated changes in multiple genes affecting multiple floral traits. Although the identification of individual genes specifying single pollination syndrome traits is in progress in many species, little is known about the genetic architecture of coadapted pollination syndrome traits and how they are embedded within the genome [7]. Here we describe the tight genetic linkage of loci specifying five major pollination syndrome traits in the genus Petunia: visible color, UV absorption, floral scent production, pistil length, and stamen length. Comparison with other Solanaceae indicates that, in P. exserta and P. axillaris, loci specifying these floral traits have specifically become clustered into a multifunctional “speciation island” [ 8 and 9]. Such an arrangement promotes linkage disequilibrium and avoids the dissolution of pollination syndromes by recombination. We suggest that tight genetic linkage provides a mechanism for rapid switches between distinct pollination syndromes in response to changes in pollinator availabilities.

Síndromes de polinização ocorrentes em uma área de Mata Atlântica, Paraíba, Brasil

ARAUJO, Afranio Cesar de et al. Síndromes de polinização ocorrentes em uma área de Mata Atlântica, Paraíba, Brasil. Biotemas, Florianopolis, v. 4, n. 22, p.83-94, dez. 2009. Disponível em: . Acesso em: 04 out. 2010.

Síndromes de polinização ocorrentes em uma área de Mata Atlântica, Paraíba, Brasil

ARAUJO, Afranio Cesar de et al. Síndromes de polinização ocorrentes em uma área de Mata Atlântica, Paraíba, Brasil. Biotemas, Florianopolis, v. 4, n. 22, p.83-94, dez. 2009. Disponível em: . Acesso em: 04 out. 2010.

Reproductive biology of six Brazilian Myrtaceae: is there a syndrome associated with buzz-pollination?

The floral phenology and reproductive biology of six sympatric arboreal Myrtaceae species were studied in the coastal plain forest (Ubatuba, Brazil, 44 degrees 48`W 23 degrees 22`S), from September 1999 to April 2002. Flowering started in the transition from the driest to the most humid season (Sep/Oct) and lasted until March. The sequence with which the species flowered each year was consistently the same. However, the timing of flowering onset, peak, end, and overlap differed from one year to another. Myrtaceae species were classified as xenogamic according to the pollen:ovule ratios, but two of them seem to present some degree of self-compatibility. Flowers of all species opened at sunrise and lasted for I day. Bombus morio (Apidae: Bombini) was the most common visitor followed by Melipona rufiventris (Apidae: Meliponini). Buzz pollination in Myrtaceae was common at the study area and seems to be related to bees` behaviour and to some aspects of flowers` morphology.