Development Planning at the State Level in India - A Case Study with Reference to Kerala, 1957-'84

This thesis entitled “Development planning at the state level in india a case study with reference to kerala1957-84.Planning in India is a concurrent subject with the Centre and the States having well-defined domains of jurisdiction with regard to planning functions and sources of resource mobilisation.The genesis of the lack of academic interest in state level planning is in the widely held belief that in the extent scheme of Centre-State economic relations, the states have little scope for initiative in planning.Both at the theoretical and empirical levels, Kerala has attached very great importance to planning.It has been the localeof wide and deep discussions on the various dimensions of planning.In Kerala's development process, the leading sector consists of social services such as education and public healthOne point that needs special emphasis in this regard is that the high demand for education in Kerala cannot be attributed to the Keralites' ‘unique urge‘ for education. Rather, it is related to the very high level of unemployment in the state (Kerala has the highest level of unemployment in the country.In resource allocation under the Five Year Plans, Kerala attached the highest weightage to power generation, hydro-electric projects being the major source of power in the state. Nearly one-fourth of the plan resources has been claimed by hydro-electric projects.In the agricultural sector, Kera1a's level of productive use of electric power is one of the lowest.As is evident.from above, planning in Kerala has not enabled us to solve the basic problems of the state. More 'scientific' planning in the sense of applying mre sophisticated planning techniques is obviously not the answer. It, on the contrary, consists of more fundamental changes some of which can be brought about through an effective use of measures well within the power of the State Government.

Territorial cohesion impacts of high-speed rail under different zoning systems

Large-scale transport infrastructure projects such as high-speed rail (HSR) produce significant effects on the spatial distribution of accessibility. These effects, commonly known as territorial cohesion effects, are receiving increasing attention in the research literature. However, there is little empirical research into the sensitivity of these cohesion results to methodological issues such as the definition of the limits of the study area or the zoning system. In a previous paper (Ortega et al., 2012), we investigated the influence of scale issues, comparing the cohesion results obtained at four different planning levels. This paper makes an additional contribution to our research with the investigation of the influence of zoning issues. We analyze the extent to which changes in the size of the units of analysis influence the measurement of spatial inequalities. The methodology is tested by application to the Galician (north-western) HSR corridor, with a length of nearly 670 km, included in the Spanish PEIT (Strategic Transport and Infrastructure Plan) 2005-2020. We calculated the accessibility indicators for the Galician HSR corridor and assessed their corresponding territorial distribution. We used five alternative zoning systems depending on the method of data representation used (vector or raster), and the level of detail (cartographic accuracy or cell size). Our results suggest that the choice between a vector-based and raster-based system has important implications. The vector system produces a higher mean accessibility value and a more polarized accessibility distribution than raster systems. The increased pixel size of raster-based systems tends to give rise to higher mean accessibility values and a more balanced accessibility distribution. Our findings strongly encourage spatial analysts to acknowledge that the results of their analyses may vary widely according to the definition of the units of analysis.

Changes in soil organic carbon storage under different agricultural management systems in the Southwest Amazon Region of Brazil

The Cerrado and Amazon regions of Brazil are probably the largest agricultural frontier of the world, and Could be a sink or source for C depending on the net effect of land use change and subsequent management on soil organic C pools. We evaluated the effects of agricultural management systems on soil organic C (SOC) stocks in the Brazilian states of Rondonia and Mato Grosso, and derived regional specific factors for soil C stock change associated with different management systems. We used 50 observations (data points) in this study, including 42 dealing with annual cropping practices and 8 dealing with perennial cropping, and analyzed the data in linear mixed-effect models. No tillage (NT) systems in Cerrado areas increased SOC Storage by 1.08 +/- 0.06 relative to SOC stocks under native conditions, while SOC storage increased by a modest factor of 1.01 +/- 0.17 in Cerradao and Amazon Forest conditions. Full tillage (FT) had negative effect on SOC storage relative to NT, decreasing SOC stocks by a factor of 0.94 +/- 0.04. but did not significantly reduce SOC stocks relative to native levels when adopted in the Cerrado region. Perennial cropping had a minimal impact on SOC stocks, estimated at a factor Value of 0.98 +/- 0.14, suggesting these systems maintain about 98% of the SOC stock found under native vegetation. The results Suggest that NT adoption may be increasing SOC with land use change from native vegetation to cropland management in the Cerrado region of Brazil. (C) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Biomassa microbiana e produção de C-CO2 e N mineral de um podzólico vermelho-escuro submetido a diferentes sistemas de manejo: Microbial biomass and C-CO2 and mineral nitrogen production in paleudult soil cultivated under different management systems

Os sistemas de manejo, com diferenças no revolvimento do solo e na composição dos resíduos vegetais, alteram as propriedades biológicas do solo, com reflexos na qualidade do solo e na produtividade das culturas. Com vistas em medir estas alterações nas propriedades biológicas do solo, a biomassa e a atividade microbiana foram avaliadas em um Podzólico Vermelho-Escuro, em Eldorado do Sul (RS), utilizando diferentes preparos (convencional, reduzido e plantio direto) e dois sistemas de sucessões de culturas (aveia preta + vica/milho + caupi e aveia/milho). As avaliações foram realizadas em quatro épocas, durante 12 meses, e em duas profundidades (0-5 e 5-15 cm). O carbono da biomassa microbiana foi analisado pelo método de fumigação-incubação, e a atividade microbiana, pela produção de C-CO2 e N mineral, após 60 dias de incubação. As diferenças na biomassa e na atividade microbiana, entre os sistemas de manejo, foram mais pronunciadas na camada de 0-5 cm. Nesta camada de solo, observaram-se os maiores valores de biomassa e de atividade nos preparos conservacionistas e no sistema aveia + vica/milho + caupi. Dentre as variáveis estudadas, a mineralização de N mostrou-se a mais sensível aos manejos, à profundidade e à época de amostragem.

Pedotransfer functions to estimate proctor test parameters under different tillage systems

The Proctor test is time-consuming and requires sampling of several kilograms of soil. Proctor test parameters were predicted in Mollisols, Entisols and Vertisols of the Pampean region of Argentina under different management systems. They were estimated from a minimum number of readily available soil properties (soil texture, total organic C) and management (training data set; n = 73). The results were used to generate a soil compaction susceptibility model, which was subsequently validated using a second group of independent data (test data set; n = 24). Soil maximum bulk density was estimated as follows: Maximum bulk density (Mg m-3) = 1.4756 - 0.00599 total organic C (g kg-1) + 0.0000275 sand (g kg-1) + 0.0539 management. Management was equal to 0 for uncropped and untilled soils and 1 for conventionally tilled soils. The established models predicted the Proctor test parameters reasonably well, based on readily available soil properties. Tillage systems induced changes in the maximum bulk density regardless of total organic matter content or soil texture. The lower maximum apparent bulk density values under no-tillage require a revision of the relative compaction thresholds for different no-tillage crops.

Long-term C-CO2 emissions and carbon crop residue mineralization in an oxisol under different tillage and crop rotation systems

Soil C-CO2 emissions are sensitive indicators of management system impacts on soil organic matter (SOM). The main soil C-CO2 sources at the soil-plant interface are the decomposition of crop residues, SOM turnover, and respiration of roots and soil biota. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the impacts of tillage and cropping systems on long-term soil C-CO2 emissions and their relationship with carbon (C) mineralization of crop residues. A long-term experiment was conducted in a Red Oxisol in Cruz Alta, RS, Brazil, with subtropical climate Cfa (Köppen classification), mean annual precipitation of 1,774 mm and mean annual temperature of 19.2 ºC. Treatments consisted of two tillage systems: (a) conventional tillage (CT) and (b) no tillage (NT) in combination with three cropping systems: (a) R0- monoculture system (soybean/wheat), (b) R1- winter crop rotation (soybean/wheat/soybean/black oat), and (c) R2- intensive crop rotation (soybean/ black oat/soybean/black oat + common vetch/maize/oilseed radish/wheat). The soil C-CO2 efflux was measured every 14 days for two years (48 measurements), by trapping the CO2 in an alkaline solution. The soil gravimetric moisture in the 0-0.05 m layer was determined concomitantly with the C-CO2 efflux measurements. The crop residue C mineralization was evaluated with the mesh-bag method, with sampling 14, 28, 56, 84, 112, and 140 days after the beginning of the evaluation period for C measurements. Four C conservation indexes were used to assess the relation between C-CO2 efflux and soil C stock and its compartments. The crop residue C mineralization fit an exponential model in time. For black oat, wheat and maize residues, C mineralization was higher in CT than NT, while for soybean it was similar. Soil moisture was higher in NT than CT, mainly in the second year of evaluation. There was no difference in tillage systems for annual average C-CO2 emissions, but in some individual evaluations, differences between tillage systems were noticed for C-CO2 evolution. Soil C-CO2 effluxes followed a bi-modal pattern, with peaks in October/November and February/March. The highest emission was recorded in the summer and the lowest in the winter. The C-CO2 effluxes were weakly correlated to air temperature and not correlated to soil moisture. Based on the soil C conservation indexes investigated, NT associated to intensive crop rotation was more C conserving than CT with monoculture.

Microbial biomass and soil chemical properties under different land use systems in northeastern Pará

The increase in agricultural production in the Brazilian Amazon region is mostly a result of the agricultural frontier expansion, into areas previously influenced by humans or of native vegetation. At the same time, burning is still used to clear areas in small-scale agricultural systems, leading to a loss of the soil productive capacity shortly after, forcing the opening of new areas. This study had the objective of evaluating the effect of soil preparation methods that involve plant residue shredding, left on the surface or incorporated to the soil, with or without chemical fertilization, on the soil chemical and biological properties. The experiment was conducted in 1995, in an experimental field of Yellow Latosol (Oxisol) of the Embrapa Amazônia Oriental, northeastern Pará (Brazil). The experiment was arranged in randomized blocks, in a 2x6 factorial design, with two management systems and six treatments evaluated twice. The management systems consisted of rice (Oriza sativa), followed by cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) with manioc (Manihot esculenta). In the first system the crops were planted in two consecutive cycles, followed by a three-year fallow period (natural regrowth); the second system consisted of one cultivation cycle and was left fallow for three years. The following treatments were applied to the secondary forest vegetation: slash and burn, fertilized with NPK (Q+NPK); slash and burn, without fertilizer NPK (Q-NPK); cutting and shredding, leaving the residues on the soil surface, fertilized with NPK (C+NPK); cutting and shredding, leaving residues on the soil surface, without fertilizer (C-NPK); cutting and shredding, with residue incorporation and fertilized with NPK (I+NPK); cutting and shredding, with residue incorporation and without NPK fertilizer (I-NPK). The soil was sampled in the rainier season (April 2006) and in the drier season (September 2006), in the 0-0.1 m layer. From each plot, 10 simple samples were collected in order to generate a composite sample. In the more intensive management system the contents of microbial C (Cmic) and microbial N (Nmic) were higher, while the C (Corg) level was higher in the less intensive system. The treatments with highest Cmic and Nmic levels were those with cutting, shredding and distribution of biomass on the soil surface. Under both management systems, the chemical characteristics were in ranges that classify the soil as little fertile, although P and K (in the rainy season) were higher in the less intensive management system.

Soil microbial biomass under different management and tillage systems of permanent intercropped cover species in an orange orchard

To mitigate soil erosion and enhance soil fertility in orange plantations, the permanent protection of the inter-rows by cover species has been suggested. The objective of this study was to evaluate alterations in the microbial biomass, due to different soil tillage systems and intercropped cover species between rows of orange trees. The soil of the experimental area previously used as pasture (Brachiaria humidicola) was an Ultisol (Typic Paleudult) originating from Caiuá sandstone in the northwestern part of the State of Paraná, Brazil. Two soil tillage systems were evaluated: conventional tillage (CT) in the entire area and strip tillage (ST) (strip width 2 m), in combination with different ground cover management systems. The citrus cultivar 'Pera' orange (Citrus sinensis) grafted onto 'Rangpur' lime rootstock was used. Soil samples were collected after five years of treatment from a depth of 0-15 cm, under the tree canopy and in the inter-row, in the following treatments: (1) CT and an annual cover crop with the leguminous species Calopogonium mucunoides; (2) CT and a perennial cover crop with the leguminous peanut Arachis pintoi; (3) CT and an evergreen cover crop with Bahiagrass Paspalum notatum; (4) CT and a cover crop with spontaneous Brachiaria humidicola grass vegetation; and (5) ST and maintenance of the remaining grass (pasture) of Brachiaria humidicola. Soil tillage and the different cover species influenced the microbial biomass, both under the tree canopy and in the inter-row. The cultivation of brachiaria increased C and N in the microbial biomass, while bahiagrass increased P in the microbial biomass. The soil microbial biomass was enriched in N and P by the presence of ground cover species and according to the soil P content. The grass species increased C, N and P in the soil microbial biomass from the inter-row more than leguminous species.

Forms of inorganic phosphorus in soil under different long term soil tillage systems and winter crops

The cultivation of crops with different capacity of P uptake and use under long-term soil tillage systems can affect the distribution of P cycling and inorganic forms in the soil, as a result of higher or lower use efficiency of P applied in fertilizers. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of long-term cultivation of different winter species under tillage systems on the distribution of inorganic P forms in the soil. In 1986, the experiment was initiated with six winter crops (blue lupin, hairy vetch, oat, oilseed radish, wheat and fallow) on a Rhodic Hapludox in southwestern Paraná, under no-tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT). The application of phosphate fertilizer in NT rows increased inorganic P in the labile and moderately labile forms, and soil disturbance in CT redistributed the applied P in the deeper layers, increasing the moderately labile P concentration in the subsurface layers. Black oat and blue lupin were the most efficient P-recyclers and under NT, they increased the labile P content in the soil surface layers.

Contribution of macroporosity to water flux of a soil under different tillage systems

In view of the importance of the macroporosity for the water transport properties of soils, its quantitative assessment is a challenging task. Measurements of hydraulic conductivity (K) at different soil water tensions and the quantification of water-conducting macropores (θM) of a soil under different tillage systems could help understand the effects on the soil porous system and related hydraulic properties. The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of Conventional Tillage (CT), Chisel Plow (CP) and No Tillage (NT) on θM and on K; and to quantify the contribution of macroporosity to total water flux in a loam soil. A tension disc infiltrometer was used at two soil water pressure heads (-5 cm, and 0) to infer θM and K, during fallow. Macroporosity was determined based on the flow contribution between 0 and -5 cm water potentials (K0, K5, respectively), according to the Hagen-Poiseuille equation. The K0 values were statistically higher for CT than for NT and CP. The K5 values did not differ statistically among treatments. The mean K values varied between 0.20 and 3.70 cm/h. For CT, θM was significantly greater than for CP and NT, following the same trend as K0. No differences in θM were detected between CP and NT. With CT, the formation of water-conducting macropores with persistence until post-harvest was possible, while under CP preparation, the water-conducting macropores were not persistent. These results support the idea that tillage affects the soil water movement mainly by the resulting water-conducting macropores. Future studies on tillage effects on water movement should focus on macroporosity.

Soil aggregation under different management systems

Considering that the soil aggregation reflects the interaction of chemical, physical and biological soil factors, the aim of this study was evaluate alterations in aggregation, in an Oxisol under no-tillage (NT) and conventional tillage (CT), since over 20 years, using as reference a native forest soil in natural state. After analysis of the soil profile (cultural profile) in areas under forest management, samples were collected from the layers 0-5, 5-10, 10-20 and 20-40 cm, with six repetitions. These samples were analyzed for the aggregate stability index (ASI), mean weighted diameter (MWD), mean geometric diameter (MGD) in the classes > 8, 8-4, 4-2, 2-1, 1-0.5, 0.5-0.25, and < 0.25 mm, and for physical properties (soil texture, water dispersible clay (WDC), flocculation index (FI) and bulk density (Bd)) and chemical properties (total organic carbon - COT, total nitrogen - N, exchangeable calcium - Ca2+, and pH). The results indicated that more intense soil preparation (M < NT < PC) resulted in a decrease in soil stability, confirmed by all stability indicators analyzed: MWD, MGD, ASI, aggregate class distribution, WDC and FI, indicating the validity of these indicators in aggregation analyses of the studied soil.

Forms of phosphorus in an oxisol under different soil tillage systems and cover plants in rotation with maize

Phosphorus fractions play a key role in sustaining the productivity of acid-savanna Oxisols and are influenced by tillage practices. The aim of this study was to quantify different P forms in an Oxisol (Latossolo Vermelho-Amarelo) from the central savanna region of Brazil under management systems with cover crops in maize rotation. Three cover crops (Canavalia brasiliensis, Cajanus cajan (L.), and Raphanus sativus L.) were investigated in maize rotation systems. These cover crops were compared to spontaneous vegetation. The inorganic forms NaHCO3-iP and NaOH-iP represented more than half of the total P in the samples collected at the depth of 5-10 cm during the rainy season when the maize was grown. The concentration of inorganic P of greater availability (NaHCO3-iP and NaOH-iP) was higher in the soil under no-tillage at the depth of 5-10 cm during the rainy season. Concentrations of organic P were higher during the dry season, when the cover crops were grown. At the dry season, organic P constituted 70 % of the labile P in the soil planted to C. cajan under no-tillage. The cover crops were able to maintain larger fractions of P available to the maize, resulting in reduced P losses to the unavailable pools, mainly in no-tillage systems.

Structural changes and degradation of Red Latosols under different management systems for 20 years

Soils are the foundation of terrestrial ecosystems and their role in food production is fundamental, although physical degradation has been observed in recent years, caused by different cultural practices that modify structures and consequently the functioning of soils. The objective of this study was to evaluate possible structural changes and degradation in an Oxisol under different managements for 20 years: no-tillage cultivation with and without crop rotation, perennial crop and conventional tillage, plus a forested area (reference). Initially, the crop profile was described and subsequently, 10 samples per management system and forest soil were collected to quantify soil organic matter, flocculation degree, bulk density, and macroporosity. The results indicated structural changes down to a soil depth of 50 cm, with predominance of structural units ∆μ (intermediate compaction level) under perennial crop and no-tillage crop rotation, and of structural units ∆ (compacted) under conventional tillage and no-tillage. The soil was increasingly degraded in the increasing order: forest => no-tillage crop rotation => perennial crop => no-tillage without crop rotation => conventional tillage. In all managements, the values of organic matter and macroporosity were always below and bulk density always above those of the reference area (forest) and, under no-tillage crop rotation and perennial crop, the flocculation degree was proportionally equal to that of the reference area.

Soil water erosion under different cultivation systems and different fertilization rates and forms over 10 years

The action of rain and surface runoff together are the active agents of water erosion, and further influences are the soil type, terrain, soil cover, soil management, and conservation practices. Soil water erosion is low in the no-tillage management system, being influenced by the amount and form of lime and fertilizer application to the soil, among other factors. The aim was to evaluate the effect of the form of liming, the quantity and management of fertilizer application on the soil and water losses by erosion under natural rainfall. The study was carried out between 2003 and 2013 on a Humic Dystrupept soil, with the following treatments: T1 - cultivation with liming and corrective fertilizer incorporated into the soil in the first year, and with 100 % annual maintenance fertilization of P and K; T2 - surface liming and corrective fertilization distributed over five years, and with 75 % annual maintenance fertilization of P and K; T3 - surface liming and corrective fertilization distributed over three years, and with 50 % annual maintenance fertilization of P and K; T4 - surface liming and corrective fertilization distributed over two years, and with 25 % annual maintenance fertilization of P and K; T5 - fallow soil, without liming or fertilization. In the rotation the crops black oat (Avena strigosa ), soybean (Glycine max ), common vetch (Vicia sativa ), maize (Zea mays ), fodder radish (Raphanus sativus ), and black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris ). The split application of lime and mineral fertilizer to the soil surface in a no-tillage system over three and five years, results in better control of soil losses than when split in two years. The increase in the amount of fertilizer applied to the soil surface under no-tillage cultivation increases phytomass production and reduces soil loss by water erosion. Water losses in treatments under no-tillage cultivation were low in all crop cycles, with a similar behavior as soil losses.

SOIL FUNGISTASIS AGAINST FUSARIUM GRAMINEARUM UNDER DIFFERENT CROP MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Soil management, in terms of tillage and cropping systems, strongly influences the biological properties of soil involved in the suppression of plant diseases. Fungistasis mediated by soil microbiota is an important component of disease-suppressive soils. We evaluated the influence of different management systems on fungistasis against Fusarium graminearum, the relationship of fungistasis to the bacterial profile of the soil, and the possible mechanisms involved in this process. Samples were taken from a long-term experiment set up in a Paleudult soil under conventional tillage or no-tillage management and three cropping systems: black oat (Avena strigose L.) + vetch (Vicia sativa L.)/maize (Zea mays L.) + cowpea (Vigna sinensis L.), black oat/maize, and vetch/maize. Soil fungistasis was evaluated in terms of reduction of radial growth of F. graminearum, and bacterial diversity was assessed using ribosomal intergenic spacer analysis (RISA). A total of 120 bacterial isolates were obtained and evaluated for antibiosis, and production of volatile compounds and siderophores. No-tillage soil samples showed the highest level of F. graminearum fungistasis by sharply reducing the development of this pathogen. Of the cropping systems tested, the vetch + black oat/maize + cowpea system showed the highest fungistasis and the oat/maize system showed the lowest. The management system also affected the genetic profile of the bacteria isolated, with the systems from fungistatic soils showing greater similarity. Although there was no clear relationship between soil management and the characteristics of the bacterial isolates, we may conclude that antibiosis and the production of siderophores were the main mechanisms accounting for fungistasis.