An ethnolinguistic study of the Yanesha’ (Amuesha) language and speech community in Peru’s Andean Amazon, and the traditional role of Ponapnora, a female rite of passage

Thesis written in co-mentorship with Richard Chase Smith Ph.D, of El Instituto del Bien Comun (IBC) in Peru. The attached file is a pdf created in Word. The pdf file serves to preserve the accuracy of the many linguistic symbols found in the text.

A comparative performance analysis of TRMM 3B42 (TMPA) versions 6 and 7 for hydrological applications over Andean-Amazon river basins

The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission 3B42 precipitation estimates are widely used in tropical regions for hydrometeorological research. Recently, version 7 of the product was released. Major revisions to the algorithm involve the radar refl ectivity - rainfall rates relationship, surface clutter detection over high terrain, a new reference database for the passive microwave algorithm, and a higher quality gauge analysis product for monthly bias correction. To assess the impacts of the improved algorithm, we compare the version 7 and the older version 6 product with data from 263 rain gauges in and around the northern Peruvian Andes. The region covers humid tropical rainforest, tropical mountains, and arid to humid coastal plains. We and that the version 7 product has a significantly lower bias and an improved representation of the rainfall distribution. We further evaluated the performance of versions 6 and 7 products as forcing data for hydrological modelling, by comparing the simulated and observed daily streamfl ow in 9 nested Amazon river basins. We find that the improvement in the precipitation estimation algorithm translates to an increase in the model Nash-Sutcliffe effciency, and a reduction in the percent bias between the observed and simulated flows by 30 to 95%.

Evaluation of Indigenous Grains from the Peruvian Andean Region for Antidiabetes and Antihypertension Potential Using In Vitro Methods

The health-relevant functionality of 10 thermally processed Peruvian Andean grains (five cereals, three pseudocereals, and two legumes) was evaluated for potential type 2 diabetes-relevant antihyperglycemia and antihypertension activity using in vitro enzyme assays. Inhibition of enzymes relevant for managing early stages of type 2 diabetes such as hyperglycemia-relevant alpha-glucosidase and alpha-amylase and hypertension-relevant angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) were assayed along with the total phenolic content, phenolic profiles, and antioxidant activity based on the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical assay. Purple corn (Zea mays L.) (cereal) exhibited high free radical scavenging-linked antioxidant activity (77%) and had the highest total phenolic content (8 +/- 1 mg of gallic acid equivalents/g of sample weight) and alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activity (51% at 5 mg of sample weight). The major phenolic compound in this cereal was protocatechuic acid (287 +/- 15 mu g/g of sample weight). Pseudocereals such as Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) and Kaniwa (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) were rich in quercetin derivatives (1,131 +/- 56 and 943 +/- 35 mu g [expressed as quercetin aglycone]/g of sample weight, respectively) and had the highest antioxidant activity (86% and 75%, respectively). Andean legumes (Lupinus mutabilis cultivars SLP-1 and H-6) inhibited significantly the hypertension-relevant ACE (52% at 5 mg of sample weight). No alpha-amylase inhibitory activity was found in any of the evaluated Andean grains. This in vitro study indicates the potential of combination of Andean whole grain cereals, pseudocereals, and legumes to develop effective dietary strategies for managing type 2 diabetes and associated hypertension and provides the rationale for animal and clinical studies.

Forest Biodiversity Assessment in Peruvian Andean Montane Cloud Forest

Cloud forests are unusual and fragile habitats, being one of the least studied and least understood ecosystems. The tropical Andean dominion is considered one of the most significant places in the world as rega rds biological diversity, with a very high level of endemism. The biodiversity was analysed in an isolated remnant area of a tropical montane cloud forest known as the ?Bosque de Neblina de Cuyas?, in the North of the Peruvian Andean range. Composition, structure and dead wood were measured or estimated. The values obtained were compared with other cloud forests. The study revealed a high level of forest biodiversity, although the level of biodiversity differs from one area to another: in the inner areas, where human pressure is almost inexistent, the biodiversity values increase. The high species richness and the low dominance among species bear testimony to this montane cloud forest as a real enclave of biodiversity.

Análisis de la Cooperación Multilateral para la Gestión de biodiversidad en Instituciones Subregionales. Caso de Estudio: Estrategia regional para la conservación y uso Sostenible de recursos en el Amazonas (TCA) y Proyecto Facilitación de financiamiento para negocios de biodiversidad y apoyo al desarrollo de actividades del mercado en la Región Andina (CAN) 2000-2009

Este trabajo de investigación analiza la importancia de la cooperación internacional para la gestión de biodiversidad entregada por el Global Environmental Facilty-GEF, para la conservación y uso sostenible de la biodiversidad en la cuenca Andino-amazónica. Esto a través del estudio de los proyectos de alcance regional financiados a dos instituciones subregionales, el primero, “Estrategia Regional para la Conservación y Uso Sostenible de Recursos en el Amazonas” perteneciente al Tratado de Cooperación Amazónica-TCA, y el segundo, “Facilitación de Financiamiento para Negocios de Biodiversidad y Apoyo al Desarrollo de Actividades de Mercado en la Región Andina” presentado por la Banco de Desarrollo de América Latina-CAF.

Phylogeography of the neotropical Anopheles triannulatus complex (Diptera: Culicidae) supports deep structure and complex patterns

Abstract Background The molecular phylogenetic relationships and population structure of the species of the Anopheles triannulatus complex: Anopheles triannulatus s.s., Anopheles halophylus and the putative species Anopheles triannulatus C were investigated. Methods The mitochondrial COI gene, the nuclear white gene and rDNA ITS2 of samples that include the known geographic distribution of these taxa were analyzed. Phylogenetic analyses were performed using Bayesian inference, Maximum parsimony and Maximum likelihood approaches. Results Each data set analyzed septely yielded a different topology but none provided evidence for the seption of An. halophylus and An. triannulatus C, consistent with the hypothesis that the two are undergoing incipient speciation. The phylogenetic analyses of the white gene found three main clades, whereas the statistical parsimony network detected only a single metapopulation of Anopheles triannulatus s.l. Seven COI lineages were detected by phylogenetic and network analysis. In contrast, the network, but not the phylogenetic analyses, strongly supported three ITS2 groups. Combined data analyses provided the best resolution of the trees, with two major clades, Amazonian (clade I) and trans-Andean + Amazon Delta (clade II). Clade I consists of multiple subclades: An. halophylus + An. triannulatus C; trans-Andean Venezuela; central Amazonia + central Bolivia; Atlantic coastal lowland; and Amazon delta. Clade II includes three subclades: Panama; cis-Andean Colombia; and cis-Venezuela. The Amazon delta specimens are in both clades, likely indicating local sympatry. Spatial and molecular variance analyses detected nine groups, corroborating some of subclades obtained in the combined data analysis. Conclusion Combination of the three molecular markers provided the best resolution for differentiation within An. triannulatus s.s. and An. halophylus and C. The latest two species seem to be very closely related and the analyses performed were not conclusive regarding species differentiation. Further studies including new molecular markers would be desirable to solve this species status question. Besides, results of the study indicate a trans-Andean origin for An. triannulatus s.l. The potential implications for malaria epidemiology remain to be investigated.

On the spatial distribution of woody plant species in a tropical montane cloud forest

Abstract The cloud forest is a special type of forest ecosystem that depends on suitable conditions of humidity and temperature to exist; hence, it is a very fragile ecosystem. The cloud forest is also one of the richest ecosystems in terms of species diversity and rate of endemism. However, today, it is one of the most threatened ecosystems in the world. Little is known about tree species distribution and coexistence among cloud forest trees. Trees are essential to understanding ecosystem functioning and maintenance because they support the ecosystem in important ways. For this dissertation, an analysis of woody plant species distribution at a small scale in a north-Peruvian Andean cloud forest was performed, and some of the factors implicated in the observed patterns were identified. Towards that end, different natural factors acting on species distribution within the forest were investigated: (i) intra-specific arrangements, (ii) heterospecific spatial relationships and (iii) relationships with external environmental factors. These analyses were conducted first on standing woody plants and then on seedlings. The woody plants were found to be clumped in the forest, either considering all the species together or each species separately. However, each species presented a specific pattern and specific spatial relationship among different-age individuals. Dispersal mode, growth form and shade tolerance played roles in the final distribution of the species. Furthermore, spatial associations among species, either positive or negative, were observed. These associations were more numerous when considering individuals of the interacting species at different developmental stages, i.e., younger individuals from one species and older individuals from another. Accordingly, competition and facilitation are asymmetric processes and vary throughout the life of an individual. Moreover, some species appear to prefer certain habitat conditions and avoid other habitats. The habitat definition that best explains species distribution is that which includes both environmental and stand characteristics; thus, a combination of these factors is necessary to understanding species' niche preferences. Seedling distribution was also associated with habitat conditions, but these conditions explained less than the 30% of the spatial variation. The position of conspecific adult individuals also affected seedling distribution; although the seedlings of many tree species avoid the vicinity of conspecifics, a few species appeared to prefer the formation of cohorts around their parent trees. The importance of habitat conditions and distance dependence with conspecifics varied among regions within the forest as well as on the developmental stage of the stand. The results from this thesis suggest that different species can coexist within a given space, forming a “puzzle” of species as a result of the intra- and interspecific spatial relationships along with niche preferences and adaptations that operate at different scales. These factors not only affect each species in a different way, but specific preferences also vary throughout species' lifespans. Resumen Resumen El bosque de niebla es uno de los ecosistemas más amenazados del mundo además de ser uno de los más frágiles. Son formaciones azonales que dependen de la existencia de unas condiciones de humedad y temperatura que permitan la formación de nubes que cubran el bosque; lo que dificulta en gran medida su conservación. También es uno de los ecosistemas con mayor riqueza de especies además de tener uno de los mayores porcentajes de endemismos. Uno de los aspectos más importantes para entender el ecosistema, es identificar y entender los elementos que lo componen y los mecanismos que regulan las relaciones entre ellos. Los árboles son el soporte del ecosistema. Sin embargo, apenas hay información sobre la distribución y coexistencia de los árboles en los bosques de niebla. Esta tesis presenta un análisis de la distribución a pequeña escala de las plantas leñosas en un bosque de niebla situado en la cordillera andina del norte de Perú; así como el análisis de algunos de los factores que pueden estar implicados en que se origine la distribución observada. Para este propósito se estudia cómo influyen factores de diferente naturaleza en la distribución de las especies (i) organización intra-específica (ii) relaciones espaciales heterospecíficas y (iii) relación con factores ambientales externos. En estos análisis se estudiaron primero las plantas jóvenes y las adultas, y después las plántulas. Los árboles aparecieron agregados en el bosque, tanto considerando todos a la vez como cuando se estudió cada especie por separado. Sin embargo, cada especie mostró un patrón distinto así como una particular relación espacial entre individuos jóvenes y adultos. El modo de dispersión, la forma de vida y la tolerancia de la especies estuvieron relacionados con el patrón general observado. Se vio también que ciertas especies aparecían relacionadas con otras, tanto de forma positiva (compartiendo zonas) como negativa (apareciendo en áreas distintas). Las asociaciones fueron mucho más numerosas cuando se consideraron los pares de especies en diferente estado de desarrollo, es decir, individuos jóvenes de una especie e individuos mayores de la otra. Eso indicaría que los procesos de competencia y facilitación son asimétricos y además varían durante la vida de la planta. Por otro lado, algunas especies aparecen preferentemente bajo ciertas condiciones de hábitat y evitan otras. La definición de hábitat a la que mejor responden las especies es cuando se incluyen tanto variables ambientales como de masa; así que ambos tipos de variables son necesarias para entender la preferencia de las especies por ciertos nichos. La distribución de las plántulas también estuvo relacionada con condiciones de hábitat, pero eso sólo llegaba a explicar hasta un 30% de la variabilidad espacial. La posición de los adultos de la misma especie también afectó a la distribución de las plántulas. En bastantes especies las plántulas evitan la cercanía de adultos de su misma especie, padres potenciales, aunque algunas especies aisladas mostraron el patrón contrario y aparecieron preferentemente en las mismas áreas que sus padres. La importancia de las condiciones de hábitat y posición de los adultos en la disposición de las plántulas varía de una zona a otra del bosque y además también varía según el estado de desarrollo de la masa.

Chemical characterization and oxidative stability of the oils from three morphotypes of Mauritia flexuosa L.f, from the Peruvian Amazon

Three morphotypes of aguaje Mauritia flexuosa were tested, classified by the color of their mesocarpium: ""color"", ""shambo"" and ""amarillo"", collected from different areas near the city of Iquitos, Peru. Also, physical-chemical analyses of the mesocarpium were performed, such as the characterization of fatty acids by gas chromatography, determination of beta- carotene y alpha tocopherol by high efficiency liquid chromatography system in normal and reverse phase and the determination of oxidation induction time in the Rancimat apparatus. Proximate, mineral and fatty acid analyses were done on the seeds. The aguaje mesocarpium is rich in oleic oil (""amarillo"": 75.63% +/- 0.31), (beta-carotene (""amarillo"": 342.42ug/g 0.71) and alpha- tocopherol (""color"": 685.81mg/L +/- 1.04), plus the morphotype ""color"" has a superior oxidation induction time compared to other morphotypes with 6.91 +/- 0.01. The aguaje seed contains significant amounts of (06 (linoleic oil) in ""shambo"" with 36.04 +/- 0.09%. The results indicate that these oils, regardless their classification, contain important chemical compounds that give them a special nutritive value.

Fractionation and interesterification of palm (Elaeis guineensis) oil from Peruvian Amazon

In the present work, the physical and chemical characteristics of the fruit of the oily palm coming from the river basin of the Manitf (Region Loreto - Peru) were studied. Also, the fractionation of the palm oil and the interesterification of mixtures of palm oil/estearin was carried out. Physico- chemical properties of the crude oil and of the products obtained and fatty acids were analysed by gas chromatography The level of saturated fatty acids increased from 51,17% in the palm oil to 54,31% in the stearin. The best products for the food industry were the interesterified samples as they had melting points close to 37 degrees C.

Massive infestation by Perulernaea gamitanae (Crustacea: Cyclopoida: Lernaidae) in juvenile gamitana, cultured in the Peruvian Amazon

The gamitana is a species of socio-economic importance in the Peruvian Amazon, often intensively produced locally for human consumption. Because of this, more studies concerning parasite populations affecting this species culture are necessary. In this study, a heavy copepod infestation of Perulernaea gamitanae is reported in a managed culture of gamitana. The prevalence of infection was 100% and mortality of the fish population was complete. The average intensity and abundance of the parasite was 268.8 parasites per individual.

THERMOTOLERANT Campylobacter SPECIES ISOLATED FROM PSITTACIFORMES IN THE PERUVIAN AMAZON REGION

Foi determinada a freqüência de isolamento de campylobacters termotolerantes em Psittaciformes silvestres capturados na região amazônica do Peru. Campylobacters foram isolados em 10/142 (7.0%) dos animais estudados, sendo C. jejuni subsp. jejuni biovar I (6/10) o mais freqüente, seguido de C. coli biovar II (2/10), C. lari não foi isolado. Os resultados sugerem que estas aves podem ser importantes reservatórios destas bactérias.

Disseminated toxoplasmosis in an immunocompetent patient from Peruvian Amazon

We report a case of severe toxoplasmosis in an immunocompetent patient, characterized by pneumonia, retinochoroiditis, hepatitis and myositis. Diagnosis was confirmed by serology, T. gondii in thick blood smear and presence of bradyzoites in muscle biopsy. Treatment with pyrimethamine plus sulfadoxine was successful but visual acuity and hip extension were partially recovered. This is the first case report of severe toxoplasmosis in an immunocompetent patient from Peru.

Epidemiological investigation of an acute case of Chagas disease in an area of active transmission in Peruvian Amazon region

The study objective was to investigate an acute case of Chagas disease in the San Pedro de Shishita community, Pebas District, in the Peruvian Amazon basin, a non-endemic area. Both parents of the index case (acute case) were thoroughly interviewed, a seroepidemiological survey was carried out in the community, parasitological exams were carried out only in relatives of the index case, and triatomine bugs were searched for inside houses, peridomiciliary, and in wild environments. Seroprevalence for IgG anti-T. cruzi antibodies was 1/104 (0.96%), using an ELISA test and an indirect immunofluorescence assay. Panstrongylus geniculatus and Rhodnius pictipes adults were found. The index case is autochthonous from San Pedro de Shishita, but the source of transmission is unknown.

New focus of active transmission of Chagas disease in indigenous populations in the Peruvian Amazon basin

Introduction Several cases of acute Chagas disease (ACD) have been reported in the Peruvian Amazon basin. Methods The objective was to describe and investigate 6 ACD cases in children from indigenous Amazon communities in the province of Datem del Marañón in Loreto department (2006-2010). Results The mean age was 3.6 years. All patients had fever, 4/6 hepatomegaly, 2/6 splenomegaly, and 5/6 had trypomastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi on thick smears. The fatality rate was 33.3%. Rhodnius pictipes and Rhodnius robustus adults were found inside the homes and in the peri-domiciles. Conclusions All cases reported were isolated cases. We report a new focus of ACD in indigenous populations.