Physiology in health and disease.

Mode of access: Internet.

Efectos de las aceleraciones positivas en el organismo

El artículo describe los efectos de las aceleraciones positivas (+Gz) sobre el organismohumano. Se consideran los factores determinantes de las aceleraciones: intensidad, velocidad de comienzo, dirección y duración. La fisiopatología describe los factores hidrostáticos,hemodinámicos y de regulación refleja del aparato cardiocirculatorio. La exposición a +Gz produce reacciones adaptativas fisiológicas. Cuando éstas se superan, aparecen patologías de tipocardiocirculatorio, respiratorio, músculoesquelético, nervioso, sensorial,... Se describen los diferentes procedimientos y equipos específicos que protegen al piloto de los efectos de +Gz. Éstos incluyen las maniobras de contracción muscular, los trajes anti-G, los equipos de respiración a presión positiva, así como el entrenamiento en centrífuga.

Rab27a: A key to melanosome transport in human melanocytes

Normal pigmentation depends on the uniform distribution of melanin-containing vesicles, the melanosomes, in the epidermis. Griscelli syndrome (GS) is a rare autosomal recessive disease, characterized by an immune deficiency and a partial albinism that has been ascribed to an abnormal melanosome distribution. GS maps to 15q21 and was first associated with mutations in the myosin-V gene. However, it was demonstrated recently that GS can also be caused by a mutation in the Rab27a gene. These observations prompted us to investigate the role of Rab27a in melanosome transport. Using immunofluorescence and immunoelectron microscopy studies, we show that in normal melanocytes Rab27a colocalizes with melanosomes. In melanocytes isolated from a patient with GS, we show an abnormal melanosome distribution and a lack of Rab27a expression. Finally, reexpression of Rab27a in GS melanocytes restored melanosome transport to dendrite tips, leading to a phenotypic reversion of the diseased cells. These results identify Rab27a as a key component of vesicle transport machinery in melanocytes.

PGC-1α induces mitochondrial and myokine transcriptional programs and lipid droplet and glycogen accumulation in cultured human skeletal muscle cells

The transcriptional coactivator peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PGC-1α) is a chief activator of mitochondrial and metabolic programs and protects against atrophy in skeletal muscle (skm). Here we tested whether PGC-1α overexpression could restructure the transcriptome and metabolism of primary cultured human skm cells, which display a phenotype that resembles the atrophic phenotype. An oligonucleotide microarray analysis was used to reveal the effects of PGC-1α on the whole transcriptome. Fifty-three different genes showed altered expression in response to PGC-1α: 42 upregulated and 11 downregulated. The main gene ontologies (GO) associated with the upregulated genes were mitochondrial components and processes and this was linked with an increase in COX activity, an indicator of mitochondrial content. Furthermore, PGC-1α enhanced mitochondrial oxidation of palmitate and lactate to CO2, but not glucose oxidation. The other most significantly associated GOs for the upregulated genes were chemotaxis and cytokine activity, and several cytokines, including IL-8/CXCL8, CXCL6, CCL5 and CCL8, were within the most highly induced genes. Indeed, PGC-1α highly increased IL-8 cell protein content. The most upregulated gene was PVALB, which is related to calcium signaling. Potential metabolic regulators of fatty acid and glucose storage were among mainly regulated genes. The mRNA and protein level of FITM1/FIT1, which enhances the formation of lipid droplets, was raised by PGC-1α, while in oleate-incubated cells PGC-1α increased the number of smaller lipid droplets and modestly triglyceride levels, compared to controls. CALM1, the calcium-modulated δ subunit of phosphorylase kinase, was downregulated by PGC-1α, while glycogen phosphorylase was inactivated and glycogen storage was increased by PGC-1α. In conclusion, of the metabolic transcriptome deficiencies of cultured skm cells, PGC-1α rescued the expression of genes encoding mitochondrial proteins and FITM1. Several myokine genes, including IL-8 and CCL5, which are known to be constitutively expressed in human skm cells, were induced by PGC-1α.

Pathophysiology of muscle dysfunction in COPD

Muscle dysfunction often occurs in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and may involve both respiratory and locomotor (peripheral) muscles. The loss of strength and/or endurance in the former can lead to ventilatory insufficiency, whereas in the latter it limits exercise capacity and activities of daily life. Muscle dysfunction is the consequence of complex interactions between local and systemic factors, frequently coexisting in COPD patients. Pulmonary hyperinflation along with the increase in work of breathing that occur in COPD appear as the main contributing factors to respiratory muscle dysfunction. By contrast, deconditioning seems to play a key role in peripheral muscle dysfunction. However, additional systemic factors, including tobacco smoking, systemic inflammation, exercise, exacerbations, nutritional and gas exchange abnormalities, anabolic insufficiency, comorbidities and drugs, can also influence the function of both respiratory and peripheral muscles, by inducing modifications in their local microenvironment. Under all these circumstances, protein metabolism imbalance, oxidative stress, inflammatory events, as well as muscle injury may occur, determining the final structure and modulating the function of different muscle groups. Respiratory muscles show signs of injury as well as an increase in several elements involved in aerobic metabolism (proportion of type I fibers, capillary density, and aerobic enzyme activity) whereas limb muscles exhibit a loss of the same elements, injury, and a reduction in fiber size. In the present review we examine the current state of the art of the pathophysiology of muscle dysfunction in COPD.

Expression of Glycogen Phosphorylase Isoforms in Cultured Muscle from Patients with McArdle´s Disease Carrying the p.R771PfsX33 PYGM Mutation

Mutations in the PYGM gene encoding skeletal muscle glycogen phosphorylase (GP) cause a metabolic disorder known as McArdle's disease. Previous studies in muscle biopsies and cultured muscle cells from McArdle patients have shown that PYGM mutations abolish GP activity in skeletal muscle, but that the enzyme activity reappears when muscle cells are in culture. The identification of the GP isoenzyme that accounts for this activity remains controversial.

Verifique sus conocimientos sobre aspectos generales de fisiopatología

Para proporcionar cuidados de calidad a los pacientes es imprescindible tener unos conocimientos esenciales de fisiopatología, que es la ciencia que estudia los trastornos que se producen en las estructuras y en la función de los órganos y que comportan el proceso de enfermar. Ya que en ocasiones es difícil establecer una diferencia clara entre las causas y los procesos que ocasionan una enfermedad, la fisiopatología también estudia dichas causas. El término patogenia define más específicamente los mecanismos por los que los agentes causales ocasionan las lesiones, mientras que la denominación de fisiopatología se usa para el estudio del curso normal de los procesos que explican la aparición y el desarrollo...

Autoevaluación: Fisiopatología del metabolismo

La respiración, la circulación sanguínea, la contracción de un músculo o el mero pensamiento son fenómenos que obligan a que nuestro organismo esté en constante cambio, produciendo y consumiendo energía. La palabra metabolismo deriva del griego metabolé y significa"cambio". Entendemos como metabolismo a todo el conjunto de reacciones bioquímicas y procesos físicos que ocurren en la célula y en el organismo. Todos estos procesos metabólicos tienen lugar en dos fases. Una fase, llamada anabolismo, en la que se consume energía para transformar moléculas pequeñas (como los aminoácidos) en moléculas mayores (proteínas), y otra fase, llamada catabolismo o fase destructiva, en la que moléculas mayores (glucógeno) se transforman en otras más pequeñas (ácido pirúvico) liberando energía en el proceso. Estos dos procesos son conjugados y cada uno depende del otro. Estas reacciones bioquímicas están organizadas de forma que se siga siempre una determinada ruta metabólica, de tal forma que un sustrato determinado es transformado en un producto concreto, y éste a su vez es el sustrato para crear otro producto. Dentro de esta vía existen unas proteínas llamadas enzimas que posibilitan estas reacciones, comportándose como factores reguladores de estas rutas metabólicas. El siguiente cuestionario tiene la finalidad de profundizar en algunos conceptos importantes dentro de la fisiopatología del metabolismo.

Autoevaluación: Fisiopatología del sistema endocrino

El sistema endocrino es un sistema indispensable para mantener el desarrollo, el crecimiento, la reproducción, el metabolismo y la homeostasis del organismo. Está constituido por células que liberan al torrente sanguíneo unas sustancias denominadas hormonas que actúan como «mensajeros químicos», de forma similar a los impulsos eléctricos que utiliza el sistema nervioso; producen efectos únicamente en las células diana, que son las que disponen de receptores específicos para dichas hormonas. Éstas son transportadas por el torrente circulatorio solas o asociadas a determinadas proteínas, y poseen un sistema de autorregulación a través de los ejes hipotalámico-hipofisoglandular utilizando mecanismos de retroalimentación; es decir, las hormonas segregadas por una glándula inhiben la liberación de las hipotalámicas y de las hipofisarias. En este contexto, es necesario recordar que al hacer referencia a las hormonas dentro del ámbito sanitario se utilizan siglas y abreviaturas derivadas del inglés con la intención de agilizar la comunicación científica. Los distintos síndromes endocrinos pueden deberse a dos mecanismos que no son excluyentes: la modificación del tamaño de la glándula y las modificaciones de la actividad funcional (hipofunción o hiperfunción), derivando sus manifestaciones clínicas del mecanismo causante. Las manifestaciones de hipo o hiperfunción vendrán dadas por el exceso o déficit de las acciones que fisiológicamente desempeñan las hormonas que están implicadas; además, un aumento de tamaño glandular podrá ocasionar lesión o compromiso de espacio en una localización anatómica o en sus estructuras próximas. Pese a que la alteración más común dentro del sistema endocrino es la diabetes mellitus, no se incluye en este cuestionario ya que su importancia radica en el síndrome metabólico que provoca. Debido a esto, se trató de ella dentro de la autoevaluación sobre fisiopatología del metabolismo, publicada en esta misma revista en el número 4 del volumen 29 (2011). A través del siguiente cuestionario se profundizará en algunos conceptos importantes dentro de la fisiopatología del sistema endocrino.

Role of Myotonic Dystrophy Protein Kinase [DMPK] in Glucose Homeostasis and Muscle Insulin Action

Myotonic dystrophy 1 (DM1) is caused by a CTG expansion in the 3′-unstranslated region of the DMPK gene, which encodes a serine/threonine protein kinase. One of the common clinical features of DM1 patients is insulin resistance, which has been associated with a pathogenic effect of the repeat expansions. Here we show that DMPK itself is a positive modulator of insulin action. DMPK-deficient (dmpk−/−) mice exhibit impaired insulin signaling in muscle tissues but not in adipocytes and liver, tissues in which DMPK is not expressed. Dmpk−/− mice display metabolic derangements such as abnormal glucose tolerance, reduced glucose uptake and impaired insulin-dependent GLUT4 trafficking in muscle. Using DMPK mutants, we show that DMPK is required for a correct intracellular trafficking of insulin and IGF-1 receptors, providing a mechanism to explain the molecular and metabolic phenotype of dmpk−/− mice. Taken together, these findings indicate that reduced DMPK expression may directly influence the onset of insulin-resistance in DM1 patients and point to dmpk as a new candidate gene for susceptibility to type 2-diabetes.

Role of Myotonic Dystrophy Protein Kinase [DMPK] in Glucose Homeostasis and Muscle Insulin Action

Myotonic dystrophy 1 (DM1) is caused by a CTG expansion in the 3′-unstranslated region of the DMPK gene, which encodes a serine/threonine protein kinase. One of the common clinical features of DM1 patients is insulin resistance, which has been associated with a pathogenic effect of the repeat expansions. Here we show that DMPK itself is a positive modulator of insulin action. DMPK-deficient (dmpk−/−) mice exhibit impaired insulin signaling in muscle tissues but not in adipocytes and liver, tissues in which DMPK is not expressed. Dmpk−/− mice display metabolic derangements such as abnormal glucose tolerance, reduced glucose uptake and impaired insulin-dependent GLUT4 trafficking in muscle. Using DMPK mutants, we show that DMPK is required for a correct intracellular trafficking of insulin and IGF-1 receptors, providing a mechanism to explain the molecular and metabolic phenotype of dmpk−/− mice. Taken together, these findings indicate that reduced DMPK expression may directly influence the onset of insulin-resistance in DM1 patients and point to dmpk as a new candidate gene for susceptibility to type 2-diabetes.

Loss of intestinal epithelial barrier function in Salmonella Enteritidis infection

Intestinal infection with Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis, a food-borne infection spread to humans especially through contaminated eggs and egg-products as well as undercooked contaminated fresh meat, is the most common cause of intestinal inflammation in the European Union. Enteritis caused by Salmonella Enteritidis is characterized by fever, diarrhoea and abdominal pain. The disruption of the intestinal epithelial barrier function contributes to diarrhoea and is responsible for the perpetuation of the inflammatory process. In this sense, oxidative stress and the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IFN-γ and IL-1β are described to induce the disorganization of the tight junctions (TJ), the most apical epithelial intercellular junctions and responsible for the paracellular permeability. The interest of this chapter relies not only in the investigation dealing with the mechanisms of TJ regulation but also in the contribution to the development of new tools for the prevention of epithelial barrier disruption in enteritis caused by Salmonella Enteritidis.

Treatise on diseases of the skin; founded on new researches in pathological anatomy and physiology.

Translation of Traité théorique et pratique des maladies de la peau.

Stress radiography and posterior pathological laxity of knee: comparison between two different techniques.

Stress radiographs have been recommended in order to obtain a better objective quantification of abnormal compartment knee motion. This tool has showed to be superior in quantifying a posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) lesion compared to clinical or arthrometer evaluation. Different radiographic techniques have been described in literature to quantify posterior pathological laxity. In this study we evaluated the total amount of posterior displacement (PTD) and side to side difference (SSD), before and after surgical reconstruction of PCL or PCL and posterolateral complex (PLC), using two different stress radiography techniques (Telos stress and kneeling view). Twenty patients were included in this study. We found a statistical significant difference about both total PTD and SSD among the two techniques preoperatively and at follow-up, with greatest values occurring using the kneeling view. Although stress radiographies has been introduced to allow an objective quantification of laxity in ligamentous injured knee, we believe that further studies on a large numbers of subjects are required to define the relationship between PTD values, measured with stress knee radiography, particularly using kneeling view, and ligamentous knee injury, in order to obtain a real useful tool in the decision making process, as well as to evaluate the outcome after ligamentous surgery.