Heterotrophic bacteria, Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus and Virus in the eastern Mediterranean Sea in March and April 2008 during SES_GR1

The dataset is based on samples collected in the framework of the project SESAME, in the Ionian, Libyan and Aegean Sea during March- April 2008. The objectives were to measure the standing stocks and calculate the production of the microbial compartment of the food web, describe the vertical distribution pattern and characterize its structure and function through the water column. Heterotrophic bacteria, Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus and Virus abundance: Subsamples for virus, heterotrophic bacteria and cyanobacteria (Synechococcus spp. and Prochlorococcus spp.) counting were analyzed using a FACSCalibur (Becton Dickinson) flow cytometer equipped with a standard laser (488 nm) and filter set and using deionized water as sheath fluid. Fluorescent beads with a diameter of 0.97 µm (Polysciences) were added to each sample as an internal standard, and all parameters were normalized to the beads and expressed as relative units. SYBRGreen I stain (Molecular Probe) was used to stain viral and heterotrophic bacterial DNA. Viruses were counted according to (Brussaard 1984). In order to avoid bulk consentrations of viruses samples we dilluted to Tris-EDTA (pH=8,0) buffer to a final sollution of 1/5 to 1/100. Total abundance and nucleid content classes were calculated using the Paint-A-Gate software (Becton Dickinson).

Abundance and Biomass from heterotrophic bacteria, Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus and Virus in the eastern Mediteranean Sea in October 2008 during SES_GR2

The HCMR_SES_LAGRANGIAN_GR2_ MICROBIAL PARAMETERS dataset is based on samples collected in the framework of the project SESAME, in the North Aegean Sea during October 2008. The objectives were to measure the standing stocks and calculate the production of the microbial compartment of the food web, describe the vertical distribution pattern and characterize its structure and function through the water column as influenced by the BSW. Heterotrophic bacteria, Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus and Virus abundance: Subsamples for virus, heterotrophic bacteria and cyanobacteria (Synechococcus spp. and Prochlorococcus spp.) counting were analyzed using a FACSCalibur (Becton Dickinson) flow cytometer equipped with a standard laser (488 nm) and filter set and using deionized water as sheath fluid. Fluorescent beads with a diameter of 0.97 µm (Polysciences) were added to each sample as an internal standard, and all parameters were normalized to the beads and expressed as relative units. SYBRGreen I stain (Molecular Probe) was used to stain viral and heterotrophic bacterial DNA. Viruses were counted according to (Brussaard 1984). In order to avoid bulk consentrations of viruses samples we dilluted to Tris-EDTA (pH=8,0) buffer to a final sollution of 1/5 to 1/100. Total abundance and nucleid content classes were calculated using the Paint-A-Gate software (Becton Dickinson). Heterotrophic Nanoflagellate abundance: Subsamples (30-150 ml) were concentrated on 25mm black polycarbonate filters of porosity 0.6?m and stained with DAPI for 10 min (Porter and Feig 1980). Under epifluorescence microscopy heterotrophic nanoflagellates (HNAN) were distinguished using UV and blue excitation and enumerated. Nanoflagellates were classified in size categories and the biovolume was calculated. Ciliate abundance: For ciliate identification and enumeration, 100-3000 ml samples were left for 24h-4d for sedimentation and then observed under an inverted microscope. Ciliates were counted, distinguished into size-classes and major taxonomic groups and identified down to genus or species level where possible (Pitta et al. 2005). Heterotrophic bacteria, Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus bacteria: Subsamples for virus, heterotrophic bacteria and cyanobacteria (Synechococcus spp. and Prochlorococcus spp.) counting were analyzed using a FACSCalibur (Becton Dickinson) flow cytometer equipped with a standard laser (488 nm) and filter set and using deionized water as sheath fluid. Fluorescent beads with a diameter of 0.97 µm (Polysciences) were added to each sample as an internal standard, and all parameters were normalized to the beads and expressed as relative units. SYBRGreen I stain (Molecular Probe) was used to stain viral and heterotrophic bacterial DNA. Viruses were counted according to (Brussaard 1984). In order to avoid bulk consentrations of viruses samples we dilluted to Tris-EDTA (pH=8,0) buffer to a final sollution of 1/5 to 1/100. Total abundance and nucleid content classes were calculated using the Paint-A-Gate software (Becton Dickinson). Abundance data were converted into C biomass using 250 fgC cell-1 (Kana & Glibert 1987) for Synechococcus, 50 fgC cell-1 (Campbell et al. 1994) for Prochlorococcus and 20fgC cell-1 (Lee & Fuhrman 1987) for heterotrophic bacteria. Heterotrophic Nanoflagellate biomass: Subsamples (30-150 ml) were concentrated on 25mm black polycarbonate filters of porosity 0.6µm and stained with DAPI for 10 min (Porter and Feig 1980). Under epifluorescence microscopy heterotrophic nanoflagellates (HNAN) were distinguished using UV and blue excitation and enumerated. Nanoflagellates were classified in size categories and the biovolume was calculated. Abundance data were converted into C biomass using 183 fgC µm**3 (Caron et al. 1995). Ciliate biomass: For ciliate identification and enumeration, 100-3000 ml samples were left for 24h-4d for sedimentation and then observed under an inverted microscope. Ciliates were counted, distinguished into size-classes and major taxonomic groups and identified down to genus or species level where possible (Pitta et al. 2005). Ciliate cell sizes were measured and converted into cell volumes using appropriate geometric formulae using image analysis. For biomass estimation, the conversion factor 190 fgC µm**3 was used (Putt and Stoecker 1989).

Abundance and Biomass from heterotrophic bacteria, Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus and Virus in the Aegean Sea in April 2008 during SES_GR1

The HCMR_SES_LAGRANGIAN_GR1_ MICROBIAL PARAMETERS dataset is based on samples collected in the framework of the project SESAME, in the North Aegean Sea during April 2008. The objectives were to measure the standing stocks and calculate the production of the microbial compartment of the food web, describe the vertical distribution pattern and characterize its structure and function through the water column as influenced by the BSW. Heterotrophic bacteria, Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus and Virus abundance: Subsamples for virus, heterotrophic bacteria and cyanobacteria (Synechococcus spp. and Prochlorococcus spp.) counting were analyzed using a FACSCalibur (Becton Dickinson) flow cytometer equipped with a standard laser (488 nm) and filter set and using deionized water as sheath fluid. Fluorescent beads with a diameter of 0.97 µm (Polysciences) were added to each sample as an internal standard, and all parameters were normalized to the beads and expressed as relative units. SYBRGreen I stain (Molecular Probe) was used to stain viral and heterotrophic bacterial DNA. Viruses were counted according to (Brussaard 1984). In order to avoid bulk consentrations of viruses samples we dilluted to Tris-EDTA (pH=8,0) buffer to a final sollution of 1/5 to 1/100. Total abundance and nucleid content classes were calculated using the Paint-A-Gate software (Becton Dickinson). Heterotrophic Nanoflagellate abundance: Subsamples (30-150 ml) were concentrated on 25mm black polycarbonate filters of porosity 0.6µm and stained with DAPI for 10 min (Porter and Feig 1980). Under epifluorescence microscopy heterotrophic nanoflagellates (HNAN) were distinguished using UV and blue excitation and enumerated. Nanoflagellates were classified in size categories and the biovolume was calculated. Ciliate abundance: For ciliate identification and enumeration, 100-3000 ml samples were left for 24h-4d for sedimentation and then observed under an inverted microscope. Ciliates were counted, distinguished into size-classes and major taxonomic groups and identified down to genus or species level where possible (Pitta et al. 2005). Heterotrophic bacteria, Synechococcus, Prochlorococcus biomass: Subsamples for virus, heterotrophic bacteria and cyanobacteria (Synechococcus spp. and Prochlorococcus spp.) counting were analyzed using a FACSCalibur (Becton Dickinson) flow cytometer equipped with a standard laser (488 nm) and filter set and using deionized water as sheath fluid. Fluorescent beads with a diameter of 0.97 µm (Polysciences) were added to each sample as an internal standard, and all parameters were normalized to the beads and expressed as relative units. SYBRGreen I stain (Molecular Probe) was used to stain viral and heterotrophic bacterial DNA. Viruses were counted according to (Brussaard 1984). In order to avoid bulk consentrations of viruses samples we dilluted to Tris-EDTA (pH=8,0) buffer to a final sollution of 1/5 to 1/100. Total abundance and nucleid content classes were calculated using the Paint-A-Gate software (Becton Dickinson). Abundance data were converted into C biomass using 250 fgC cell-1 (Kana & Glibert 1987) for Synechococcus, 50 fgC cell-1 (Campbell et al. 1994) for Prochlorococcus and 20fgC cell-1 (Lee & Fuhrman 1987) for heterotrophic bacteria. Heterotrophic Nanoflagellate biomass: Subsamples (30-150 ml) were concentrated on 25mm black polycarbonate filters of porosity 0.6µm and stained with DAPI for 10 min (Porter and Feig 1980). Under epifluorescence microscopy heterotrophic nanoflagellates (HNAN) were distinguished using UV and blue excitation and enumerated. Nanoflagellates were classified in size categories and the biovolume was calculated. Abundance data were converted into C biomass using 183 fgC µm**3 (Caron et al. 1995). Ciliate biomass: For ciliate identification and enumeration, 100-3000 ml samples were left for 24h-4d for sedimentation and then observed under an inverted microscope. Ciliates were counted, distinguished into size-classes and major taxonomic groups and identified down to genus or species level where possible (Pitta et al. 2005). Ciliate cell sizes were measured and converted into cell volumes using appropriate geometric formulae using image analysis. For biomass estimation, the conversion factor 190 fgC µm**3 was used (Putt and Stoecker 1989).

The global distribution of phytoplankton size spectrum and size classes from their light-absorption spectra derived from satellite data

The absorption spectra of phytoplankton in the visible domain hold implicit information on the phytoplankton community structure. Here we use this information to retrieve quantitative information on phytoplankton size structure by developing a novel method to compute the exponent of an assumed power-law for their particle-size spectrum. This quantity, in combination with total chlorophyll-a concentration, can be used to estimate the fractional concentration of chlorophyll in any arbitrarily-defined size class of phytoplankton. We further define and derive expressions for two distinct measures of cell size of mixed populations, namely, the average spherical diameter of a bio-optically equivalent homogeneous population of cells of equal size, and the average equivalent spherical diameter of a population of cells that follow a power-law particle-size distribution. The method relies on measurements of two quantities of a phytoplankton sample: the concentration of chlorophyll-a, which is an operational index of phytoplankton biomass, and the total absorption coefficient of phytoplankton in the red peak of visible spectrum at 676 nm. A sensitivity analysis confirms that the relative errors in the estimates of the exponent of particle size spectra are reasonably low. The exponents of phytoplankton size spectra, estimated for a large set of in situ data from a variety of oceanic environments (~ 2400 samples), are within a reasonable range; and the estimated fractions of chlorophyll in pico-, nano- and micro-phytoplankton are generally consistent with those obtained by an independent, indirect method based on diagnostic pigments determined using high-performance liquid chromatography. The estimates of cell size for in situ samples dominated by different phytoplankton types (diatoms, prymnesiophytes, Prochlorococcus, other cyanobacteria and green algae) yield nominal sizes consistent with the taxonomic classification. To estimate the same quantities from satellite-derived ocean-colour data, we combine our method with algorithms for obtaining inherent optical properties from remote sensing. The spatial distribution of the size-spectrum exponent and the chlorophyll fractions of pico-, nano- and micro-phytoplankton estimated from satellite remote sensing are in agreement with the current understanding of the biogeography of phytoplankton functional types in the global oceans. This study contributes to our understanding of the distribution and time evolution of phytoplankton size structure in the global oceans.

Der Einfluss von Seamounts auf die klein- und mesoskalige Verteilung des Phytoplanktons im zentralen, subtropischen Nordostatlantik

Thema dieser Arbeit war die Beschreibung des Einflusses von Seamounts auf die Verteilung und Zusammensetzung von Phytoplanktonpopulationen. Dazu wurden exemplarisch zwei verschiedene Seamounts während zweier multidisziplinärer Expeditionen im subtropischen Nordostatlantik ausgewählt. Diese waren der Ampere Seamount (35°05’N 012°55‘W) und die Große Meteorbank (30°00’N 028°30‘W). I. Der Ampere Seamount wurde vom 29.04.-09.05.1996 während der Forschungsreise POS 218 mit FS „Poseidon“ besucht. Dort wurde versucht, ausgehend von einer zentralen Position, entlang radialer Schnitte über den Seamount dessen Einfluss auf die Verteilung des Phytoplanktons zu erfassen. Durch direkte Messung bzw. Beprobung der Wassersäule war eine Charakterisierung der abiotischen Umweltparameter Temperatur, Salzgehalt, potentielle Dichte, gelöster Sauerstoff, Nährsalze und Lichttiefe möglich. Weiterhin wurden der Phytoplanktonbestand und die Zusammensetzung der Phytoplanktonpopulation anhand mehrerer Untersuchungsmethoden beschrieben. Diese waren Bestimmungen von partikulärem organischem Kohlenstoff und Stickstoff, Chlorophyll a-Messungen, HPLC-Pigmentanalysen, mikroskopische Zählungen sowie die Bestimmung von gesamter und größenfraktionierter Primärproduktion. Zwei exemplarische Schnitte in Nord-Süd- bzw. West-Ost-Ausrichtung wurden ausgewählt. Die Ergebnisse zeigten deutlich einen Einfluss des Seamounts auf die abiotischen Umweltparameter. So ließ sich ein Anstieg der Isopyknen um etwa 20-30 m über dem Gipfelbereich feststellen im Vergleich zu Stationen, welche weiter entfernt vom Gipfel waren. Nährsalze waren im Allgemeinen an der Oberfläche nur in sehr geringen Konzentrationen nachzuweisen. Ein deutlicher Konzentrationsanstieg erfolgte ab einer Tiefe von etwa 75 m. Eine Ausnahme stellte die Südflanke des Seamounts dar, wo etwas höhere Nährsalzkonzentrationen schon ab Wassertiefen von etwa 30 m festgestellt wurden. Dies kann vermutlich auf die hydrografischen Bedingungen an dieser Stelle zurückgeführt werden. Erste, vorläufige Modellberechnungen lassen auf einen Einfluss eines starken Einschnitts an der sehr steilen Südflanke des Seamounts auf eine Strömung schließen, welche kälteres, nährsalzreicheres Tiefenwasser nach oben bringt. Auch bei der Verteilung der biotischen Variablen machte sich der Einfluss dieser Strömung bemerkbar. Die POC-Konzentrationen lagen im Mittel bei etwa 75.5 μg/l mit einem Tiefenmaximum bei ca. 80 m. An der Südflanke wiederum zeigte sich eine heterogene Verteilung der POC-Konzentration ohne deutlich ausgebildetes Maximum. Ein deutlich ausgebildetes Tiefenchlorophyllmaximum (TCM) wurde unterhalb der Dichtesprungschicht in Wassertiefen zwischen 50 und 100 m beobachtet, wie es allgemein für subtropische Meeresgebiete typisch ist. Auch das TCM zeichnete sich durch einen Anstieg um ca. 25 m im Gipfelbereich aus. Weiterhin war auffällig, dass das Chl a- und das Nitritmaximum in der gleichen Tiefe lagen. Dies könnte evtl. durch erhöhte Fraßaktivitäten und nachfolgende Anhäufung von Exkretionsprodukten des Zooplanktons erklärt werden, wie schon bei anderen Seamounts nachgewiesen wurde. Die Primärproduktion erreichte Werte, wie sie für diese Meeresregion schon früher bestimmt wurden. Auffällig war bei der fraktionierten Produktionsmessung die Dominanz von Pico- und Nanoplankton. Ein etwas höherer Anteil von Mikrophytoplankton an einigen Stationen könnte mit dem Auftrieb von etwas nährsalzreicherem Wasser an der Südseite des Ampere Seamounts zusammenhängen. Die Pigmentanalysen zeigten, dass die Phytoplanktonpopulation von Picoplanktongruppen bestimmt war. Diese waren in erster Linie Cyanophyceen und Prochlorophyceen, welche bis zur Tiefe des TCM vorherrschten. Unterhalb des TCM nahm der Anteil dieser beiden Gruppen ab, während Chrysophyceen, Chlorophyceen und Prymnesiophyceen zunahmen. Die Gruppen des Mikroplanktons, Dinophyceen und Bacillariophyceen, spielten nur eine untergeordnete Rolle. II. Die Große Meteorbank wurde vom 25.08.-23.09.1998 während der Forschungsreise M 42/3 mit FS „Meteor“ besucht. Auch dort wurde versucht, entlang verschiedener Schnitte über den Seamount dessen Einfluss auf die Verteilung des Phytoplanktons zu erfassen. Ausser den schon beim Ampere Seamount beschriebenen Messungen und Beprobungen zur Erfassung der abiotischen Umweltparameter und biotischen Variablen bzw. des Phytoplanktonbestands und der Zusammensetzung der Phytoplanktonpopulation wurden noch Zählungen des Picoplanktons anhand der Durchflusszytometrie sowie rasterelektronenmikroskopische Beobachtung und Auszählung der Coccolithophoridenflora (Prymnesiophyceae) durchgeführt. An der Großen Meteorbank wurden keine Bestimmungen der Primärproduktion gemacht. Zwei exemplarische Schnitte in Nord-Süd- bzw. West-Ost-Ausrichtung wurden ausgewählt. Die Ergebnisse zeigten auch bei diesem Seamount einen deutlichen Einfluss auf die abiotischen Umweltparameter. Ein Anstieg der Isopyknen um 30 m konnte über dem Bankplateau nachgewiesen werden. Als herausragendes Merkmal war hier eine ringförmige Vertiefung der durchmischten Schicht über den Flanken zu verzeichnen, was zu einer Isolierung der Wassermassen innerhalb dieser Ringstruktur führte. Dies spiegelte sich in der Verteilung der meisten untersuchten Parameter wider. So folgten ein Großteil der biogeochemischen Variablen wie die Nährsalze und der Chlorophyll a-Gehalt dem Aufwölben der Isopyknen. Die Nährsalze waren, wie schon beim Ampere Seamount, in den Oberflächenschichten fast vollständig erschöpft. Ein deutlicher Konzentrationsanstieg war erst ab Tiefen zwischen 100 und 125 m zu verzeichnen. Dies könnte zum einen durch eine stabilere Schichtung der Wassersäule und zum anderen durch die ausgeprägte Isolierung der Wassermassen über dem Plateau erklärt werden. Die mittleren Konzentrationen von partikulärem organischem Kohlenstoff (50.7 μg/l), Stickstoff (9.8 μg/l), des Phytoplanktonkohlenstoffs (0.6 μg/l) und des Chlorophyll a (0.06 μg/l) lagen an der Großen Meteorbank unterhalb der am Ampere Seamount festgestellten Werte. Dies könnte ebenfalls auf die zuvor erwähnte Schichtung und Isolierung zurückgeführt werden. Das Tiefenchlorophyllmaximum war zwischen 75 und 125 m gemessen worden. Deutlich war hier der Einfluss der hydrografischen Bedingungen über dem Bankplateau auf das Verteilungsmuster des Chlorophyll a-Gehaltes zu sehen, insbesondere die geringen Chlorophyll a-Gehalte über den Flanken. Dies kann auf die Isolierung der Wassermasse über dem Plateau zurückgeführt werden. Noch klarer als am Ampere Seamount war an der Großen Meteorbank die Dominanz von Pico- und Nanoplankton anhand der Pigmentanalysen zu erkennen. So erreichte der mittlere Anteil der Prochlorophyceen bis zu 75 % der Phytoplanktonpopulation. Diese Ergebnisse wurden durch die Untersuchungen mit Hilfe der Durchflusszytometrie bestätigt. So überwogen in den Oberflächenschichten zunächst Zellen der Gattung Synechococcus. Diese wurden mit zunehmender Tiefe durch Prochlorococcus ersetzt. Einen zahlenmäßig geringeren Anteil erreichten eukaryotische Picoplanktonzellen. In Biomasse umgerechnet überwog diese letzte Gruppe die beiden vorherigen allerdings. Dies ist auf die größeren Zellen der Picoeukaryoten zurückzuführen und konnte auch durch die höheren Zahlen der kleineren Zellen nicht kompensiert werden. An der Großen Meteorbank wurde eine erwartungsgemäß hohe Diversität von Coccolithophoriden gefunden. In den beiden untersuchten Tiefenhorizonten (100 und 200 m) zeigte sich bei 100 m die höhere Artenvielfalt und Abundanz, während bei 200 m nur noch wenige unversehrte Zellen gefunden wurden. Dies könnte mit Wegfraß durch Zooplanktonorganismen erklärt werden. Weiterhin reichte die mittlere euphotische Zone (0.1 % Lichttiefe) nur bis etwa 130 m, sodass nicht mehr genügend Licht für die Photosynthese zur Verfügung stand. Die Dominanz von Pico- und Nanoplankton ist allgemein aus oligotrophen Meeresgebieten, um welche es sich auch bei dieser Untersuchung handelte, bekannt und wird mit Anpassungen an die etwas höheren Nährsalzkonzentrationen in größeren Tiefen und die gleichzeitig verringerten Lichtintensitäten erklärt. Im Gegensatz zu einigen anderen Untersuchungen konnte an beiden Seamounts keine Erhöhung der Biomasse festgestellt werden. Auch die Primärproduktion, die nur am Ampere Seamount gemessen wurde, war nicht erhöht. Die dargestellten Ergebnisse lassen dennoch für beide untersuchten Seamounts auf ein getrenntes Ökosystem schließen. An der Großen Meteorbank wird dies insbesondere durch die Isolierung von Wassermassen und den darin enthaltenen Planktonorganismen über dem Bankplateau deutlich.

Pastaje (grazing) del microzooplancton en aguas de las Islas Canarias

[EN]The impact of micrograzers upon primary production was measured north of the Canary Islands during 2010 and 2011 using the dilution technique. Grazing was estimated from chlorophyll a but also taking into account the different phototrophic organisms, that is, Synechococcus (Syn), Prochlorococcus (Pro), autotrophic picoeukaryotes (APE) and autotrophic nanoflagellates (ANF). Some experiments showed significant values of grazing upon Syn, Pro or APE although no significant grazing was measured on chlorophyll a. Furthermore, a positive relationship, this means growth instead of grazing, was observed in Syn and Pro in two experiments. Grazing on heterotrophic prokaryotes was also determined and the obtained values were always highly significant. These results showed that the impact of micrograzers upon primary production is a complex process which involves a different grazing pressure upon phytoplankton groups. Therefore, a detailed analysis of the pico, nano and microplanktonic community is essential to really understand the role of micrograzers and the trophic interactions among these groups in subtropical waters.

Patterns in marine microbial community structure

Programa en Oceanografía

Bottle effects, toxicity and cell viability during incubation experiments to asses community respiration

Máster en Oceanografía

Ecological modelling of the phytoplankton dynamics in the northern Gulf of Aqaba (Red Sea)

The Gulf of Aqaba represents a small scale, easy to access, regional analogue of larger oceanic oligotrophic systems. In this Gulf, the seasonal cycles of stratification and mixing drives the seasonal phytoplankton dynamics. In summer and fall, when nutrient concentrations are very low, Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus are more abundant in the surface water. This two populations are exposed to phosphate limitation. During winter mixing, when nutrient concentrations are high, Chlorophyceae and Cryptophyceae are dominant but scarce or absent during summer. In this study it was tried to develop a simulation model based on historical data to predict the phytoplankton dynamics in the northern Gulf of Aqaba. The purpose is to understand what forces operate, and how, to determine the phytoplankton dynamics in this Gulf. To make the models data sampled in two different sampling station (Fish Farm Station and Station A) were used. The data of chemical, biological and physical factors, are available from 14th January 2007 to 28th December 2009. The Fish Farm Station point was near a Fish Farm that was operational until 17th June 2008, complete closure date of the Fish Farm, about halfway through the total sampling time. The Station A sampling point is about 13 Km away from the Fish Farm Station. To build the model, the MATLAB software was used (version 7.6.0.324 R2008a), in particular a tool named Simulink. The Fish Farm Station models shows that the Fish Farm activity has altered the nutrient concentrations and as a consequence the normal phytoplankton dynamics. Despite the distance between the two sampling stations, there might be an influence from the Fish Farm activities also in the Station A ecosystem. The models about this sampling station shows that the Fish Farm impact appears to be much lower than the impact in the Fish Farm Station, because the phytoplankton dynamics appears to be driven mainly by the seasonal mixing cycle.

Oceanography during TYDEMAN cruise DCM (DeepChlorMax) to the Equatorial Atlantic

The cruise with RV Tydeman was devoted to study permanently stratified plankton systems in the (sub)tropical ocean, which are characterised by a deep chlorophyll peak between 80 and 150 m. To minimise lateral effects by horizontal transport of nutrients and organic matter from river outflow and upwelling regions, stations were selected in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean between the continents of America and Africa. (5 - 35° N and 50 - 15° W). Here the vertical distributions of light and nutrients control the abundance and growth of autotrophic algae in the thermically stratified water column. This phytoplankton is numerically dominated by the prokaryotic picoplankters Synechococcus spp. and Prochlorococcus spp., which are smaller than 2 ?m. The productivity of the 100 to 150 m deep euphotic zone can be high, because a high heterotrophic/autotrophic biomass ratio induces a rapid regeneration of nutrients and inorganic carbon. Primary grazers are mainly micro-organisms such as heterotrophic nannoflagellates and ciliates, which feed on the small algae and on bacteria. Heterotrophic bacteria can outnumber the autotrophic algae, because their number is related to the substrate pools of dissolved and particulate dead organic matter. These DOC and detritus pools reach equilibrium at a concentration, where the rate of their production (proportional to algal biomass) equals their mineralisation and sinking rate (proportional to the concentration and weight of POC and detritus). At a relatively low value of the weight-specific loss rates, the equilibrium concentration of these carbon pools and their load of bacteria can be high. The bacterial productivity is proportional to the mineralisation rate, which in a steady state can never be higher than the rate of primary production. Hence the ratio in turnover rate of bacteria and autotrophs tends to be reciprocally proportional to their biomass ratio.