Biossorção de cobre, manganês e cádmio por biomassas de Saprolegnia subterranea(Dissmann) R.L. Seym. e Pythium torulosumCoker & P. Patt. (Oomycetes)

Dried biomass of the zoosporic fungi Saprolegnia subterranea and Pythium torulosum was evaluated for copper, manganese and cadmium biosorption from aqueous solutions using the "q" (mg of adsorbed metal per g of biomass) and the "R%" (percent removal) indices. The highest q values were observed when the biomass was placed in contact with high metal concentrations, whereas the highest R% values were observed at low concentrations (p< 0.05). S. subterranea SPC 1244 biomass surpassed the others for copper biosorption (q = 7.48 mg/ g; R% = 49.03), P. torulosum SPC 1425 biomass was the best for manganese biosorption (q = 4.13 mg/g; R% = 26.71), and S. subterranea SPC 1431 biomass was the best for cadmium biosorption (q = 6.75 mg/g; R% = 42.26). This is the first report on copper, manganese and cadmium biosorption by the biomass of these zoosporic fungi, indicating the potential to remove ions from diluted solutions.

Chitinolytic activity of endophytic Streptomyces and potential for biocontrol

Biological sources for the control of plant pathogenic fungi remain an important objective for sustainable agricultural practices. Actinomycetes are used extensively in the pharmaceutical industry and agriculture owing to their great diversity in enzyme production. In the present study, therefore, we evaluated chitinase production by endophytic actinomycetes and the potential of this for control of phytopathogenic fungi. Endophytic Streptomyces were grown on minimum medium supplemented with chitin, and chitinase production was quantified. The strains were screened for any activity towards phytopathogenic fungi and oomycetes by a dual-culture in vitro assay. The correlation between chitinase production and pathogen inhibition was calculated and further confirmed on Colletotrichum sublineolum cell walls by scanning electron microscopy. This paper reports a genetic correlation between chitinase production and the biocontrol potential of endophytic actinomycetes in an antagonistic interaction with different phytopathogens, suggesting that this control could occur inside the host plant. A genetic correlation between chitinase production and pathogen inhibition was demonstrated. Our results provide an enhanced understanding of endophytic Streptomyces and its potential as a biocontrol agent. The implications and applications of these data for biocontrol are discussed.

Gene and genotypic diversity of Phytophthora cinnamomi in South Africa and Australia revealed by DNA polymorphisms

Phytophthora cinnamomi isolates from South Africa and Australia were compared to assess genetic differentiation between the two populations. These two populations were analysed for levels of phenotypic diversity using random amplified polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs) and gene and genotypic diversity using restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs). Sixteen RAPD markers from four decanucleotide Operon primers and 34 RFLP alleles from 15 putative loci were used. A few isolates from Papua New Guinea known to posses alleles different from Australian isolates were also included for comparative purposes. South African and Australian P. cinnamomi populations were almost identical with an extremely low level of genetic distance between them (D-m = 0.003). Common features for the two populations include shared alleles, low levels of phenotypic/genotypic diversity, high clonality, and low observed and expected levels of heterozygosity. Furthermore, relatively high levels of genetic differentiation between mating type populations (D-m South Africa = 0.020 and D-m Australia = 0.025 respectively), negative fixation indices, and significant deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, all provided evidence for the lack of frequent sexual reproduction in both populations. The data strongly suggest that both the South African and Australian P. cinnamomi populations are introduced.

Population structure of Phytophthora cinnamomi in South Africa

Phytophthora cinnamomi isolates collected from 1977 to 1986 and 1991 to 1993 in two regions in South Africa were analyzed using isozymes. A total of 135 isolates was analyzed for 14 enzymes representing 20 putative loci, of which four were polymorphic. This led to the identification of nine different multilocus isozyme genotypes. Both mating types of P. cinnamomi occurred commonly in the Cape region, whereas, predominantly, the A2 mating type occurred in the Mpumalanga region of South Africa. A2 mating type isolates could be resolved into seven multilocus isozyme genotypes, compared with only two multilocus isozyme genotypes for the A1 mating type isolates. Low levels of gene (0.115) and genotypic (2.4%) diversity and a low number of alleles per locus (1.43) were observed for the South African P. cinnamomi population. The genetic distance between the Cape and Mpumalanga P. cinnamomi populations was relatively low (D-m = 0.165), and no specific pattern in regional distribution of multilocus isozyme genotypes could be observed. The genetic distance between the ''old'' (isolated between 1977 and 1986) and ''new'' (isolated between 1991 and 1993) P. cinnamomi populations from the Cape was low (D-m = 0.164), indicating a stable population over time. Three of the nine multilocus isozyme genotypes were specific to the ''old'' population, and only one multilocus isozyme genotype was specific to the ''new'' population. Significant differences in allele frequencies, a high genetic distance (D-m = 0.581) between the Cape A1 and A2 mating type isolates, significant deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, a low overall level of heterozygosity, and a high fixation index (0.71) all indicate that sexual reproduction occurs rarely, if at all, in the South African P. cinnamomi population.

Diversity of Phytophthora clandestina isolated from subterranean clover in southern australia: Analysis of virulence and RAPD profiles

The virulence spectrum of 112 isolates of Phytophthora clandestina collected from 56 sites in four subterranean clover-growing states in southern Australia was determined using differential cultivars of subterranean clover. Five races were detected, with race 0 in all states except New South Wales, race 1 in all states, race 2 only in Victoria, race 3 only in New South Wales, and race 4 in Victoria and Western Australia. The level of genotypic diversity among the different P. clandestina populations was investigated using five RAPD primers. Among 30 bands amplified, only two were polymorphic. This enabled identification of four multilocus RAPD genotypes. Three of the four genotypes occurred in all four states. Races 2 and 3 occurred with RAPD genotypes 1 and 2 only whereas races 0 and 1 occurred in all four multilocus RAPD genotypes. These results indicate that the pathogenicity spectrum of P. clandestina can change rapidly.

Inheritance and mapping of 11 avirulence genes in Phytophthora sojae

Two new crosses involving four races (races 7, 16, 17, and 25) of the soybean root and stem rot pathogen Phytophthora sojae were established (7/16 cross; 17/25 cross). An F-2 Population derived from each cross was used to determine the genetic basis of avirulence towards 11 different resistance genes in soybean. Avirulence was found to be dominant and determined by a single locus for Avr1b, 1d, 1k, 3b, 4, and 6, as expected for a simple gene-for-gene model. We also observed several cases of segregation, inconsistent with a single dominant gene being solely responsible for avirulence, which suggests that the genetic background of the different crosses can affect avirulence. Avr4 and 6 cosegregated in both the 7/16 and 17/25 crosses and, in the 7/16 cross, Avr1b and 1k were closely linked. Information from segregating RAPD, RFLP, and AFLP markers screened on F-2 progeny from the two new crosses and two crosses described previously (a total of 212 F-2 individuals, 53 from each cross) were used to construct an integrated genetic linkage map of P. sojae. This revised genetic linkage map consists of 386 markers comprising 35 RFLP, 236 RAPD, and 105 AFLP markers, as well as 10 avirulence genes. The map is composed of 21 major linkage groups and seven minor linkage groups covering a total map distance of 1640.4 cM. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.

Interspecific hybrids between the homothallic Phytophthora sojae and Phytophthora vignae

An interspecific cross was attempted between two homothallic species of Phytophthora, P. sojae and P. vignae. From 1640 single-oospore cultures isolated, DNA was extracted from 800, and two interspecific F-1 hybrids (F(1)1121 and F(1)1426) were putatively identified using RAPD markers. The true hybrid nature of these F-1 hybrids was confirmed using additional AFLP analysis. Single- zoospore cultures were generated for each F-1 hybrid and one single-zoospore culture of each was used in pathogenicity and virulence tests. Both F-1 hybrids were pathogenic to soybean and cowpea, causing symptoms including lesions, wilting and death of susceptible soybean and cowpea cultivars. However, the aggressiveness of the F-1 hybrids was reduced and was substantially more variable when compared with that of the parental isolates on their respective hosts. The F-1 hybrids were reisolated from infected seedlings and their hybrid nature confirmed using RAPD and AFLP analysis. These results provide a basis for further research aimed at obtaining an increased understanding of the genetics of host specificity in the Oomycetes.

Patterns of plant subcellular responses to successful oomycete infections reveal differences in host cell reprogramming and endocytic trafficking.

Adapted filamentous pathogens such as the oomycetes Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis (Hpa) and Phytophthora infestans (Pi) project specialized hyphae, the haustoria, inside living host cells for the suppression of host defence and acquisition of nutrients. Accommodation of haustoria requires reorganization of the host cell and the biogenesis of a novel host cell membrane, the extrahaustorial membrane (EHM), which envelops the haustorium separating the host cell from the pathogen. Here, we applied live-cell imaging of fluorescent-tagged proteins labelling a variety of membrane compartments and investigated the subcellular changes associated with accommodating oomycete haustoria in Arabidopsis and N. benthamiana. Plasma membrane-resident proteins differentially localized to the EHM. Likewise, secretory vesicles and endosomal compartments surrounded Hpa and Pi haustoria revealing differences between these two oomycetes, and suggesting a role for vesicle trafficking pathways for the pathogen-controlled biogenesis of the EHM. The latter is supported by enhanced susceptibility of mutants in endosome-mediated trafficking regulators. These observations point at host subcellular defences and specialization of the EHM in a pathogen-specific manner. Defence-associated haustorial encasements, a double-layered membrane that grows around mature haustoria, were frequently observed in Hpa interactions. Intriguingly, all tested plant proteins accumulated at Hpa haustorial encasements suggesting the general recruitment of default vesicle trafficking pathways to defend pathogen access. Altogether, our results show common requirements of subcellular changes associated with oomycete biotrophy, and highlight differences between two oomycete pathogens in reprogramming host cell vesicle trafficking for haustoria accommodation. This provides a framework for further dissection of the pathogen-triggered reprogramming of host subcellular changes.

Genomics of secondary metabolite production by Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf-5

The complete sequence of the 7.07 Mb genome of the biological control agent Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf-5 is now available, providing a new opportunity to advance knowledge of biological control through genomics. P. fluorescens Pf-5 is a rhizosphere bacterium that suppresses seedling emergence diseases and produces a spectrum of antibiotics toxic to plant-pathogenic fungi and oomycetes. In addition to six known secondary metabolites produced by Pf-5, three novel secondary metabolite biosynthesis gene clusters identified in the genome could also contribute to biological control. The genomic sequence provides numerous clues as to mechanisms used by the bacterium to survive in the spermosphere and rhizosphere. These features include broad catabolic and transport capabilities for utilizing seed and root exudates, an expanded collection of efflux systems for defense against environmental stress and microbial competition, and the presence of 45 outer membrane receptors that should allow for the uptake of iron from a wide array of siderophores produced by soil microorganisms. As expected for a bacterium with a large genome that lives in a rapidly changing environment, Pf-5 has an extensive collection of regulatory genes, only some of which have been characterized for their roles in regulation of secondary metabolite production or biological control. Consistent with its commensal lifestyle, Pf-5 appears to lack a number of virulence and pathogenicity factors found in plant pathogen.

Caracterização morfofisiológica e análise de PCR-SSCP de isolados de Phytophthora da acácia-negra na região Sul do Brasil

O objetivo do trabalho foi caracterizar isolados de Phytophthora da acácia-negra (Acacia mearnsii) provenientes do Sul do Brasil, com base em características fenotípicas tais como morfologia, crescimento micelial, características das culturas, compatibilidade sexual e patogenicidade, e em perfis de polimorfismo de conformação de fita simples (SSCP = Single Strand Conformation Polymorphism) da região ITS-gene 5.8S do rDNA. Os isolados apresentaram esporângios com papilas proeminentes, arranjo dos esporângios irregularmente simpodial, culturas heterotálicas com presença de anterídios anfígenos, presença de clamidósporos e crescimento micelial em temperatura acima de 35°C, permitindo a classificação dos 12 isolados como P. nicotianae. Todos os isolados foram patogênicos, causando necrose em ramos de acácia-negra, sem formação de goma, com diferenças significativas de agressividade (p=0,05). Duas populações podem ser distinguidas em P. nicotianae da acácia negra pela análise PCR-SSCP do rDNA; no entanto essa separação não apresenta aparente correlação com características fenotípicas.

Fungos zoospóricos (Mastigomycotina) da mata atlântica da Reserva Biológica do Alto da Serra de Paranapiacaba, município de Santo André, SP

Trezentas e dezesseis ocorrências de 20 táxons de Mastigomycotina (fungos zoospóricos) foram registradas em folhas de Alchornea triplinervia (Spreng.) Müll. Arg. colocadas em ambientes terrestre e aquático, em amostras de solo e de água de riacho coletadas mensalmente de julho de 1988 a maio de 1990. Entre os 13 táxons de Chytridiomycetes e sete de Oomycetes, as espécies com maior ocorrência foram: Karlingia rosea (De Bary & Woronin) Johanson (35 ocorrências), Polychytrium aggregatum Ajello (32 ocorrências), Rhizophydium elyensis Sparrow (34 ocorrências) e Nowakowskiella elegans (Nowak.) Schroeter (32 ocorrências). São citados pela primeira vez para a mata atlântica: Karlingiomyces sp., Phlyctochytrium sp. e Rhizophydium chitinophyllum Sparrow.

Évolution à fine échelle des sites d'épissage des introns dans les gènes des oomycètes

Les introns sont des portions de gènes transcrites dans l’ARN messager, mais retirées pendant l’épissage avant la synthèse des produits du gène. Chez les eucaryotes, on rencontre les introns splicéosomaux, qui sont retirés de l’ARN messager par des splicéosomes. Les introns permettent plusieurs processus importants, tels que l'épissage alternatif, la dégradation des ARNs messagers non-sens, et l'encodage d'ARNs fonctionnels. Leurs rôles nous interrogent sur l'influence de la sélection naturelle sur leur évolution. Nous nous intéressons aux mutations qui peuvent modifier les produits d'un gène en changeant les sites d'épissage des introns. Ces mutations peuvent influencer le fonctionnement d'un organisme, et constituent donc un sujet d'étude intéressant, mais il n'existe actuellement pas de logiciels permettant de les étudier convenablement. Le but de notre projet était donc de concevoir une méthode pour détecter et analyser les changements des sites d'épissage des introns splicéosomaux. Nous avons finalement développé une méthode qui repère les évènements évolutifs qui affectent les introns splicéosomaux dans un jeu d'espèces données. La méthode a été exécutée sur un ensemble d'espèces d'oomycètes. Plusieurs évènements détectés ont changé les sites d’épissage et les protéines, mais de nombreux évènements trouvés ont modifié les introns sans affecter les produits des gènes. Il manque à notre méthode une étape finale d'analyse approfondie des données récoltées. Cependant, la méthode actuelle est facilement reproductible et automatise l'analyse des génomes pour la détection des évènements. Les fichiers produits peuvent ensuite être analysés dans chaque étude pour répondre à des questions spécifiques.