Emotion-attention network interactions during a visual oddball task.

Emotional and attentional functions are known to be distributed along ventral and dorsal networks in the brain, respectively. However, the interactions between these systems remain to be specified. The present study used event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to investigate how attentional focus can modulate the neural activity elicited by scenes that vary in emotional content. In a visual oddball task, aversive and neutral scenes were presented intermittently among circles and squares. The squares were frequent standard events, whereas the other novel stimulus categories occurred rarely. One experimental group [N=10] was instructed to count the circles, whereas another group [N=12] counted the emotional scenes. A main effect of emotion was found in the amygdala (AMG) and ventral frontotemporal cortices. In these regions, activation was significantly greater for emotional than neutral stimuli but was invariant to attentional focus. A main effect of attentional focus was found in dorsal frontoparietal cortices, whose activity signaled task-relevant target events irrespective of emotional content. The only brain region that was sensitive to both emotion and attentional focus was the anterior cingulate gyrus (ACG). When circles were task-relevant, the ACG responded equally to circle targets and distracting emotional scenes. The ACG response to emotional scenes increased when they were task-relevant, and the response to circles concomitantly decreased. These findings support and extend prominent network theories of emotion-attention interactions that highlight the integrative role played by the anterior cingulate.

Functional parcellation of attentional control regions of the brain.

Recently, a number of investigators have examined the neural loci of psychological processes enabling the control of visual spatial attention using cued-attention paradigms in combination with event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging. Findings from these studies have provided strong evidence for the involvement of a fronto-parietal network in attentional control. In the present study, we build upon this previous work to further investigate these attentional control systems. In particular, we employed additional controls for nonattentional sensory and interpretative aspects of cue processing to determine whether distinct regions in the fronto-parietal network are involved in different aspects of cue processing, such as cue-symbol interpretation and attentional orienting. In addition, we used shorter cue-target intervals that were closer to those used in the behavioral and event-related potential cueing literatures. Twenty participants performed a cued spatial attention task while brain activity was recorded with functional magnetic resonance imaging. We found functional specialization for different aspects of cue processing in the lateral and medial subregions of the frontal and parietal cortex. In particular, the medial subregions were more specific to the orienting of visual spatial attention, while the lateral subregions were associated with more general aspects of cue processing, such as cue-symbol interpretation. Additional cue-related effects included differential activations in midline frontal regions and pretarget enhancements in the thalamus and early visual cortical areas.

Computational inference of neural information flow networks.

Determining how information flows along anatomical brain pathways is a fundamental requirement for understanding how animals perceive their environments, learn, and behave. Attempts to reveal such neural information flow have been made using linear computational methods, but neural interactions are known to be nonlinear. Here, we demonstrate that a dynamic Bayesian network (DBN) inference algorithm we originally developed to infer nonlinear transcriptional regulatory networks from gene expression data collected with microarrays is also successful at inferring nonlinear neural information flow networks from electrophysiology data collected with microelectrode arrays. The inferred networks we recover from the songbird auditory pathway are correctly restricted to a subset of known anatomical paths, are consistent with timing of the system, and reveal both the importance of reciprocal feedback in auditory processing and greater information flow to higher-order auditory areas when birds hear natural as opposed to synthetic sounds. A linear method applied to the same data incorrectly produces networks with information flow to non-neural tissue and over paths known not to exist. To our knowledge, this study represents the first biologically validated demonstration of an algorithm to successfully infer neural information flow networks.

Neural networks supporting autobiographical memory retrieval in posttraumatic stress disorder.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) affects the functional recruitment and connectivity between neural regions during autobiographical memory (AM) retrieval that overlap with default and control networks. Whether such univariate changes relate to potential differences in the contributions of the large-scale neural networks supporting cognition in PTSD is unknown. In the present functional MRI study, we employed independent-component analysis to examine the influence of the engagement of neural networks during the recall of personal memories in a PTSD group (15 participants) as compared to non-trauma-exposed healthy controls (14 participants). We found that the PTSD group recruited similar neural networks when compared to the controls during AM recall, including default-network subsystems and control networks, but group differences emerged in the spatial and temporal characteristics of these networks. First, we found spatial differences in the contributions of the anterior and posterior midline across the networks, and of the amygdala in particular, for the medial temporal subsystem of the default network. Second, we found temporal differences within the medial prefrontal subsystem of the default network, with less temporal coupling of this network during AM retrieval in PTSD relative to controls. These findings suggest that the spatial and temporal characteristics of the default and control networks potentially differ in a PTSD group versus healthy controls and contribute to altered recall of personal memory.

The role of stimulus salience and attentional capture across the neural hierarchy in a stop-signal task.

Inhibitory motor control is a core function of cognitive control. Evidence from diverse experimental approaches has linked this function to a mostly right-lateralized network of cortical and subcortical areas, wherein a signal from the frontal cortex to the basal ganglia is believed to trigger motor-response cancellation. Recently, however, it has been recognized that in the context of typical motor-control paradigms those processes related to actual response inhibition and those related to the attentional processing of the relevant stimuli are highly interrelated and thus difficult to distinguish. Here, we used fMRI and a modified Stop-signal task to specifically examine the role of perceptual and attentional processes triggered by the different stimuli in such tasks, thus seeking to further distinguish other cognitive processes that may precede or otherwise accompany the implementation of response inhibition. In order to establish which brain areas respond to sensory stimulation differences by rare Stop-stimuli, as well as to the associated attentional capture that these may trigger irrespective of their task-relevance, we compared brain activity evoked by Stop-trials to that evoked by Go-trials in task blocks where Stop-stimuli were to be ignored. In addition, region-of-interest analyses comparing the responses to these task-irrelevant Stop-trials, with those to typical relevant Stop-trials, identified separable activity profiles as a function of the task-relevance of the Stop-signal. While occipital areas were mostly blind to the task-relevance of Stop-stimuli, activity in temporo-parietal areas dissociated between task-irrelevant and task-relevant ones. Activity profiles in frontal areas, in turn, were activated mainly by task-relevant Stop-trials, presumably reflecting a combination of triggered top-down attentional influences and inhibitory motor-control processes.

IMMUNOCYTOCHEMICAL DEMONSTRATION OF NEUROPEPTIDES IN THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS-SYSTEM OF THE ROUNDWORM ASCARIS-SUUM (NEMATODA, ASCAROIDEA)

The localisation and distribution of neuropeptides in the peripheral nervous system of the pig roundworm Ascaris suum have been determined by an indirect immunofluorescence technique in conjunction with confocal microscopy. Of the 31 antisera tested, immunostaining was obtained only with antisera to peptide YY (PYY), pancreatic polypeptide (PP) and FMRFamide. Immunostaining for PYY and FMRFamide was evident in the amphidial and papillary ganglia associated with the anterior nerve ring and in the nerves from these ganglia that terminated in sensory receptors within the buccal lips of the parasite. The only peptide immunoreactivity (IR) observed in the reproductive system of either sex was that evident in the nerve supply to the distal region of the vagina in the female worm. It took the form of a well-developed plexus of parallel nerve fibres, cross-connectives and looped commissures. The nerve net diminished in the more proximal region of the vagina. PP-IR was less intense than that for PYY and FMRFamide and was more restricted in distribution, being confined to a small number of nerve fibres in the nerve supply to the vagina; it did not occur in the nerves supplying the anterior sensory receptors. The possible roles of neuropeptides in the sensory and reproductive biology of nematodes are discussed.

NEUROPEPTIDE-F - A NOVEL PARASITIC FLATWORM REGULATORY PEPTIDE FROM MONIEZIA-EXPANSA (CESTODA, CYCLOPHYLLIDEA)

Using a C-terminally directed pancreatic polypeptide (PP) antiserum and immunocytochemical methods, PP-immunoreactivity (IR) was localized throughout the central (CNS) and peripheral nervous systems (PNS) of the cestode, Moniezia expansa. In the CNS, immunostaining was evident in the paired cerebral ganglia (primitive brain), connecting commissure, and the paired longitudinal nerve cords that are cross-linked by numerous regular transverse connectives. The PNS was seen to consist of a fine anastomosing nerve-net of immunoreactive fibres, many of which were closely associated with reproductive structures. Radioimmunoassay of this peptide IR in acid-alcohol extracts of the worm measured 192.8 ng/g of PP-IR. HPLC analyses of the M. expansa PP-IR identified a single molecular form which was purified to homogeneity. Plasma desorption mass spectrometry (PDMS) of purified parasite peptide resolved a single peptide with a molecular mass of 4599 +/- 10 Da. Automated gas-phase Edman degradation identified a 39-amino acid peptide with a C-terminal phenylalaninamide. Examination of its primary structure shows that it displays significant sequence homology with the vertebrate neuropeptide Y superfamily, suggesting that this platyhelminth-derived peptide is the phylogenetic precursor. Neuropeptide F (M. expansa) is the first regulatory peptide to be fully sequenced from the phylum Platyhelminthes and may represent a member of an important new class of invertebrate neuropeptide.

THE ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS-SYSTEM IN PLATHELMINTHES - THE NEUROPEPTIDE F-IMMUNOREACTIVE PATTERN IN CATENULIDA, MACROSTOMIDA, PROSERIATA

The organization of the nervous system of Archilopsis unipunctata Promonotus schultzei and Paramonotus hamatus (Monocelididae, Proseriata) and Stenostomum leucops (Catenulida) and Microstomum lineare (Macrostomida) was studied by immunocytochemistry, using antibodies to the authentic flatworm neuropeptide F (NPF) (Moniezia expansa). The organization of the nervous system of the Monocelididae was compared to that of the nervous system of Bothriomolus balticus (Otoplanidae), a previously studied species of another family of the Proseriata. The results show that the main nerve cords (MCs), independent of lateral or ventral position in the Monocelididae and the Otoplanidae, correspond to each other. The study also confirms the status of the lateral cords as main cords (MCs) in S. leucops and M. lineare. Common for MCs in the members of the investigated taxa are the following features: MCs consist of many fibres, originate from the brain and are adjoined to 5-HT-positive neurons. In Monocelididae and Otoplanidae, the MCs additionally have the same type of contact to the pharyngeal nervous system. Also common for both proseriate families is the organization of the two lateral nerve cords, with weaker connections to the brain, and the pair of dorsal cords running above the brain. The organization of the minor cords differs. The Monocelididae have a pair of thin ventral cords forming a mirror image of the dorsal pair. Furthermore, an unpaired ventral medial cord connecting medial commissural cells was observed in P. schultzei. Marginal nerve cords, observed in Otoplanidae, are absent in Monocelididae. All minor nerve cords are closely connected to the peripheral nerve plexus. The postulated trends of condensation of plexal fibres to cords and/or the flexibility of the peripheral nerve plexus are discussed. In addition, the immunoreactivity (IR) pattern of NPF was compared to the IR patterns of the neuropeptide RFamide and the indoleamine, 5-HT (serotonin). Significant differences between the distribution of IR to NPF and to 5-HT occur. 5-HT-IR dominates in the submuscular and subepidermal plexuses. In the stomatogastric plexus of M. lineare, only peptidergic IR is observed in the intestinal nerve net. The distribution of NPF-IR in fibres and cells of the intestinal wall in M. lineare indicates a regulatory function for this peptide in the gut, while a relationship with ciliary and muscular locomotion is suggested for the 5-HT-IR occurring in the subepidermal and submuscular nerve plexuses. In M. lineare, the study revealed an NPF- and RFamide-positive cell pair, marking the finished development of new zooids. This finding indicates that constancy of these cells is maintained in this asexually reproducing and regenerating species.

Temporal and spatial appearance of the membrane cytoskeleton and perineuronal nets in the rat neocortex.

Parvalbumin-immunoreactive interneurons are surrounded by perineuronal nets, containing molecules of the extracellular matrix (e.g. tenascin-R). Furthermore, they seem to have a special cytoskeleton composed of, among others, ankyrinR and beta Rspectrin. In the present developmental study we showed that the intracellular markers parvalbumin, ankyrinR and beta Rspectrin as well as Vicia Villosa agglutinin, an extracellular marker for perineuronal nets, appeared in the second postnatal week. In the third postnatal week, ankyrinR and beta R spectrin were present in the parvalbumin-positive interneurons. Tenascin-R appeared in a similar topographic distribution as the intracellular markers. The adult pattern was established upon the end of the fourth postnatal week. Our results indicate that cytoskeletal maturity maybe a prerequisite for the organization of perineuronal nets of extracellular matrix.

Maturation and Functional Integration of New Granule Cells into the Adult Hippocampus.

The adult hippocampus generates functional dentate granule cells (GCs) that release glutamate onto target cells in the hilus and cornus ammonis (CA)3 region, and receive glutamatergic and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic inputs that tightly control their spiking activity. The slow and sequential development of their excitatory and inhibitory inputs makes them particularly relevant for information processing. Although they are still immature, new neurons are recruited by afferent activity and display increased excitability, enhanced activity-dependent plasticity of their input and output connections, and a high rate of synaptogenesis. Once fully mature, new GCs show all the hallmarks of neurons generated during development. In this review, we focus on how developing neurons remodel the adult dentate gyrus and discuss key aspects that illustrate the potential of neurogenesis as a mechanism for circuit plasticity and function.

Effets d'agents morphogénétiques sur la prolifération et la différenciation neuronales et épithéliales chez la pensée de mer Renilla koellikeri

La présence d’un récepteur de type RXR a récemment été rapporté chez la pensée de mer, Renilla koellikeri, de même que chez d’autres anthozoaires, et le NO semble jouer des différents rôles physiologiques, chez plusieurs cnidaires. L’acide rétinoïque (AR) et le monoxyde d’azote (NO) sont connus pour leur implication dans l’induction de la croissance des neurites chez les vertébrés ainsi que chez les invertébrés. Mais jusqu’à présent, aucun rôle de ces agents n’a encore été identifié chez ce phylum ancien des invertébrés. Dans le but de montrer que ces agents morphogénétiques ont un rôle dans le développement neuronal chez ces ancêtres des métazoaires bilatéraux, nous avons utilisé des cultures primaires de cellules du cnidaire anthozoaire Renilla koellikeri (pensée de mer), doté d’un système nerveux des plus primitif. Nous avons trouvé que les deux types d’acide rétinoïque, 9-cis et 11-trans, induisent une prolifération cellulaire dose-dépendante en fonction du temps dans les boîtes de pétri enduites de polylysine. Les cultures cellulaires exposées à l’acide rétinoïque dans les boîtes sans polylysine montrent une différenciation en des cellules épithéliales. D’autre part, le NO induit exclusivement une différenciation neuronale dans les boîtes enduites de polylysine. Aucun autre type de cellules subit un différenciation en présence de NO et la densité des cellules dédifférenciées a diminué. Les prolongements des neurones différenciés semblent s’enchevêtrer et former un réseau neuronal assez dense. L’ensemble de ces observations suggère que l’acide rétinoïque, contrairement à NO, est associé à l’activité mitotique, et que l’acide rétinoïque et le NO sont impliqués différemment dans la spécification cellulaire, respectivement épithéliale et neuronale, chez la pensée de mer. Le type d’action déclenchée, qu’il soit la mitogénèse ou la différenciation (épithéliale ou neuronale), varie alors selon l’état d’adhésion des cellules au substrat. Comme les données moléculaires et paléontologiques rapprochent les cnidaires, telle la pensée de mer, des ancêtres des eumétazoaires, nos résultats suggèrent que le rôle morphogénétique de l’acide rétinoïque et du NO est enraciné dans l’ancêtre commun de tous les métazoaires.

Disrupting disordered neurocircuitry : treating refractory psychiatric illness with neuromodulation

Despite the premature and somewhat infamous rise and fall of psychosurgery in the mid-20th century, the current era of functional neuromodulation proffers immense opportunity for surgical intervention in treatment-resistant psychiatric disorders. On the basis of recent successes with novel, focused, less invasive, and reversible treatment strategies for movement disorders, several therapeutic trials have been conducted to investigate the effectiveness of deep brain stimulation (DBS) in treatment-resistant depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and Tourette syndrome. The many anatomic targets for these psychiatric disorders are indicative of both the system-wide effects of DBS and the network-level dysfunction mediating the emotional and cognitive disturbances. To gain insight into the application of neuromodulation therapies and their further advancement, we must elucidate neuroanatomic networks involved in refractory psychiatric illness, the neurophysiological anomalies that contribute to disordered information processing therein, and the local and system-wide modulatory effects of DBS. This review discusses the history of psychosurgical procedures, recent DBS clinical data, current anatomic models of psychopathology, and possible therapeutic mechanisms of action of DBS neuromodulation. Our search criteria for PubMed included combinations of the following terms: neuromodulation, DBS, depression, OCD, Tourette syndrome, mechanism of action, and history. Dates were not restricted. As clinical and basic scientific investigations probe the neuromodulatory effects of DBS in the treatment of refractory neuropsychiatric illness, our knowledge of these disorders and our potential to treat them are rapidly expanding. Indeed, this modern era of neuromodulation may provide the key that unlocks many of the mysteries pertaining to the biological basis of disordered emotional neurocircuitry.

Reassessment of the phylogenetic position of conulariids (?Ediacaran-Triassic) within the subphylum medusozoa (Phylum Cnidaria)

Fossil taxa of uncertain phytogenetic affinities can play a crucial role in the analysis of character evolution within major extant groups. Marques & Collins (2004) concluded that conulariids (?Ediacaran-Triassic) are an extinct group of medusozoan cnidarians most closely related to Stauromedusae. However, only six of the 87 characters used by these authors can be observed in conulariid fossils. Rescoring the character states of conulariids in a conservative manner yields a new hypothesis for the phylogenetic position of conulariids, namely that they are the sister group of the scyphozoan order Coronatae rather than Stauromedusae, which is revealed as the earliest diverging lineage of Medusozoa. This new hypothesis also implies several different sequences of character evolution within Cnidaria. Specifically, the presence of a periderm completely covering the polyp in conutariids and coronates appears to be derived within Scyphozoa. Strobilation appears to be a synapomorphy uniting conulariids, Coronatae, Rhizostomeae and Semaeostomeae. This result supports the controversial interpretation of one exceptionally preserved conulariid that potentially shows that these animals produced ephyrae by strobilation. Finally, the pelagic adult medusa stage and the giant fibre nerve net appear to be features that are derived within Medusozoa.

N-methyl-D-aspartate channel and consciousness: From signal coincidence detection to quantum computing

Research on Blindsight, Neglect/Extinction and Phantom limb syndromes, as well as electrical measurements of mammalian brain activity, have suggested the dependence of vivid perception on both incoming sensory information at primary sensory cortex and reentrant information from associative cortex. Coherence between incoming and reentrant signals seems to be a necessary condition for (conscious) perception. General reticular activating system and local electrical synchronization are some of the tools used by the brain to establish coarse coherence at the sensory cortex, upon which biochemical processes are coordinated. Besides electrical synchrony and chemical modulation at the synapse, a central mechanism supporting such a coherence is the N-methyl-D-aspartate channel, working as a 'coincidence detector' for an incoming signal causing the depolarization necessary to remove Mg 2+, and reentrant information releasing the glutamate that finally prompts Ca 2+ entry. We propose that a signal transduction pathway activated by Ca 2+ entry into cortical neurons is in charge of triggering a quantum computational process that accelerates inter-neuronal communication, thus solving systemic conflict and supporting the unity of consciousness. © 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.