The central role of Fyn kinase in axon-glial signalling and translation of myelin proteins

During central nervous system myelination, oligodendrocytes extend membrane processes towards an axonal contact site which is followed by ensheathment resulting in a compacted multilamellar myelin sheath. The formation of this axon-glial unit facilitates rapid saltatory propagation of action potentials along the axon and requires the synthesis and transport of copious amounts of lipids and proteins to the axon-glial contact site. Fyn is a member of the Src family of non receptor tyrosine kinases and inserted into the inner leaflet of the oligodendrocyte membrane by acylation. Fyn activity plays a pivotal role in the maturation of oligodendrocytes and the myelination process. It was suggested previously that Fyn kinase can be stimulated by binding of a neuronal ligand to oligodendroglial F3/ contactin, a glycosyl-phosphatidyl-inositol anchored immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) member protein. It could be shown here, that neuronal cell adhesion molecule L1 binds to oligodendrocytes in an F3-dependent manner and activates glial Fyn. In the search for downstream participants of this novel axon-glial signalling cascade, heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) A2 was identified as a novel Fyn target in oligodendrocytes. HnRNP A2 was known to be involved in the localisation of translationally repressed myelin basic protein (MBP) mRNA by binding to a cis acting A2 response element (A2RE) present in the 3’ untranslated region. Transport of MBP mRNAs occurs in RNA-protein complexes termed RNA granules and translational repression during transport is achieved by hnRNP A2-mediated recruitment of hnRNP E1 to the granules. It could be shown here, that Fyn activity leads to enhanced translation of reporter mRNA containing a part of the 3’ UTR of MBP including the A2RE. Furthermore hnRNP E1 seems to dissociate from RNA granules in response to Fyn activity and L1 binding. These findings suggest a novel form of neuron- glial communication: Axonal L1 binding to oligodendroglial F3 activates Fyn kinase. Activated Fyn phosphorylates hnRNP A2 leading to removal of hnRNP E1 from RNA granules initiating the translation of MBP mRNA. MBP is the second most abundant myelin protein and mice lacking this protein show a severe hypomyelination phenotype. Moreover, the brains of Fyn knock out mice contain reduced MBP levels and are hypomyelinated. Hence, L1-mediated MBP synthesis via Fyn as a central molecule could be part of a regulatory mechanism required for myelinogenesis in the central nervous system.

Demyelination in brain cell aggregate cultures, induced by a monoclonal antibody against the myelin/oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG).

Previous work has shown that aggregate cultures prepared from fetal rat telencephalon and grown in a chemically defined medium offer a useful model to study developmental processes such as myelin synthesis. Since compact myelin is formed in these cultures, we investigated the possibility to use this culture system to study demyelinating mechanisms. In particular, we examined the effect of a monoclonal antibody (8-18C5) directed against the myelin/oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG). We found that addition of anti-MOG antibodies and complement to aggregate cultures led to a highly significant decrease in myelin basic protein (MBP) content and 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphohydrolase (CNP) specific activity. These results indicate that, in our culture system, anti-MOG antibodies have a strong demyelinating effect.

Myelin gene expression during demyelination and remyelination in aggregating brain cell cultures.

Remyelination can be studied in aggregating rat brain cell cultures after limited demyelination. Demyelination was induced using a monoclonal antibody against myelin/oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG mAb), in the presence of complement. De- and remyelination were assessed by measuring myelin basic protein (MBP). Two days after removing the MOG mAb, MBP levels reached 50% of controls and after 7 days 93%. During this period, cell proliferation determined by [14C]thymidine incorporation was similar in remyelinating and control cultures. Hormones and growth factors were tested for possible stimulatory effect on remyelinating cultures. Bovine growth hormone (bGH), triiodothyronine (T3), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) did not improve remyelination. Only epidermal growth factor (EGF) increased the level of remyelination. PDGF increased the rate of cell proliferation in both control and remyelinating cultures. A significant proportion of oligodendrocytes entered the cell division cycle and were not available for remyelination. The results obtained with PDGF and FGF (inhibition) support the idea that a pool of progenitor cells was still present and able to proliferate and differentiate into myelinating oligodendrocytes. The levels of myelin protein mRNAs were investigated during de- and remyelination. During demyelination, myelin protein mRNA levels decreased to approximately 50% of control cultures and returned to normal during remyelination. These preliminary results indicate that normal levels of gene transcription are sufficient to meet the increased need for newly synthesized myelin proteins during remyelination.

A role of peripheral myelin protein 2 in lipid homeostasis of myelinating Schwann cells.

Peripheral myelin protein 2 (Pmp2, P2 or Fabp8), a member of the fatty acid binding protein family, was originally described together with myelin basic protein (Mbp or P1) and myelin protein zero (Mpz or P0) as one of the most abundant myelin proteins in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Although Pmp2 is predominantly expressed in myelinated Schwann cells, its role in glia is currently unknown. To study its function in PNS biology, we have generated a complete Pmp2 knockout mouse (Pmp2(-/-) ). Comprehensive characterization of Pmp2(-/-) mice revealed a temporary reduction in their motor nerve conduction velocity (MNCV). While this change was not accompanied by any defects in general myelin structure, we detected transitory alterations in the myelin lipid profile of Pmp2(-/-) mice. It was previously proposed that Pmp2 and Mbp have comparable functions in the PNS suggesting that the presence of Mbp can partially mask the Pmp2(-/-) phenotype. Indeed, we found that Mbp lacking Shi(-/-) mice, similar to Pmp2(-/-) animals, have preserved myelin structure and reduced MNCV, but this phenotype was not aggravated in Pmp2(-/-) /Shi(-/-) mutants indicating that Pmp2 and Mbp do not substitute each other's functions in the PNS. These data, together with our observation that Pmp2 binds and transports fatty acids to membranes, uncover a role for Pmp2 in lipid homeostasis of myelinating Schwann cells.

A missense mutation in myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein as a cause of familial narcolepsy with cataplexy.

Narcolepsy is a rare sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and cataplexy. Familial narcolepsy accounts for less than 10% of all narcolepsy cases. However, documented multiplex families are very rare and causative mutations have not been identified to date. To identify a causative mutation in familial narcolepsy, we performed linkage analysis in the largest ever reported family, which has 12 affected members, and sequenced coding regions of the genome (exome sequencing) of three affected members with narcolepsy and cataplexy. We successfully mapped a candidate locus on chromosomal region 6p22.1 (LOD score ¼ 3.85) by linkage analysis. Exome sequencing identified a missense mutation in the second exon of MOG within the linkage region. A c.398C>G mutation was present in all affected family members but absent in unaffected members and 775 unrelated control subjects. Transient expression of mutant myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) in mouse oligodendrocytes showed abnormal subcellular localization, suggesting an altered function of the mutant MOG. MOG has recently been linked to various neuropsychiatric disorders and is considered as a key autoantigen in multiple sclerosis and in its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalitis. Our finding of a pathogenic MOG mutation highlights a major role for myelin and oligodendrocytes in narcolepsy and further emphasizes glial involvement in neurodegeneration and neurobehavioral disorders. [corrected].

Demyelination induced in aggregating brain cell cultures by a monoclonal antibody against myelin/oligodendrocyte glycoprotein.

A monoclonal antibody (8-18C5) directed against myelin/oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) induced demyelination in aggregating brain cell cultures. With increasing doses of anti-MOG antibody in the presence of complement, myelin basic protein (MBP) concentration decreased in a dose-related manner. A similar, albeit less pronounced, effect was observed on specific activity of 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphohydrolase. In the absence of complement, anti-MOG antibody did not induce detectable demyelination. In contrast to the effect of anti-MOG antibody and as expected, anti-MBP antibody did not demyelinate aggregating brain cell cultures in the presence of complement. These results provide additional support to the suggestion that MOG, a quantitatively minor myelin component located on the external side of the myelin membrane, is a good target antigen for antibody-induced demyelination. Indeed, they show that a purified anti-MOG antibody directed against a single epitope on the glycoprotein can produce demyelination, not only in vivo as previously shown, but also in cultures. Such an observation has not been made with polyclonal antisera raised against purified myelin proteins like MBP and proteolipid protein, the major protein components of the myelin membrane, or myelin-associated glycoprotein. These observations may have important implications regarding the possible role of anti-MOG antibodies in demyelinating diseases.

Biochemical characterization of a myelin fraction isolated from rat brain aggregating cell cultures.

Subcellular fractions isolated from rat brain aggregating cell cultures were studied by electron microscopy and showed the presence of typical myelin membranes. The chemical composition of purified culture myelin was similar to the fraction isolated from rat brain in terms of CNP specific activity, protein and lipid composition. The ratio of small to large components of myelin basic protein was comparable in culture and in vivo. These two proteins incorporated radioactive phosphorus. The major myelin glycoprotein was present and during development in culture its apparent molecular weight decreased although it never reached the position observed in myelin isolated from adult rats. In culture, the yield of myelin did not increase substantially between 33 and 50 days and was comparable to that of 15-day-old rat brain. The ratio basic protein to proteolipid protein resembled immature myelin and the cerebroside content was very low. A 'floating fraction' was isolated from the cultures and contained some myelin but mostly single membranes. Although these results indicate that myelin maturation is delayed in vitro this culture system provides substantial amounts of purified myelin to allow a complete biochemical analysis and metabolic studies during development.

Myelin basic protein content of aggregating rat brain cell cultures treated with cytokines and/or demyelinating antibody: effects of macrophage enrichment.

The demyelinative potential of the cytokines interleukin-1 alpha (IL-1 alpha), interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) has been investigated in myelinating aggregate brain cell cultures. Treatment of myelinated cultures with these cytokines resulted in a reduction in myelin basic protein (MBP) content. This effect was additively increased by anti-myelin/oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (alpha-MOG) in the presence of complement. Qualitative immunocytochemistry demonstrated that peritoneal macrophages, added to the fetal telencephalon cell suspensions at the start of the culture period, successfully integrated into aggregate cultures. Supplementing the macrophage component of the cultures in this fashion resulted in increased accumulation of MBP. The effect of IFN-gamma on MBP content of cultures was not affected by the presence of macrophages in increased numbers.

Posttranskriptionale Regulation von Myelin-mRNAs

Die Myelinisierung neuronaler Axone ermöglicht eine schnelle und energieeffiziente Weiterleitung von Informationen im Nervensystem. Durch lokale Synthese von Myelinproteinen kann die Myelinschicht, zeitlich und räumlich reguliert, gebildet werden. Dieser Prozess ist abhängig von verschiedensten axonalen Eigenschaften und muss damit lokal reguliert werden. Die Myelinisierung im zentralen sowie im peripheren Nervensystem hängt unter anderem stark von kleinen regulatorischen RNA Molekülen ab. In Oligodendrozyten wird das Myelin Basische Protein (MBP) von der sncRNA715 translational reguliert, indem diese direkt innerhalb der 3’UTR der Mbp mRNA bindet und damit die Proteinsynthese verhindert. Mbp mRNA wird in hnRNP A2‐enthaltenen RNA Granula in die Zellperipherie transportiert, wo in Antwort auf axonale Signale die membranständige Tyrosin‐ Kinase Fyn aktiviert wird, welche Granula‐Komponenten wie hnRNP A2 und F phosphoryliert wodurch die lokale Translation initiiert wird. Während des Transports wird die mRNA durch die Bindung der sncRNA715 translational reprimiert. SncRNAs bilden zusammen mit Argonaut‐Proteinen den microRNA induced silencing complex (miRISC), welcher die translationale Inhibition oder den Abbau von mRNAs vermittelt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollte zum einen die Regulation der sncRNA715‐abhängigen translationalen Repression der Mbp mRNA in oligodendroglialen Zellen genauer untersucht werden und im zweiten Teil wurde die Rolle der sncRNA715 in den myelinbildenden Zellen des peripheren Nervensystems, den Schwann Zellen, analysiert. Es konnte in oligodendroglialen Zellen die mRNA‐Expression der vier, in Säugern bekannten Argonaut‐Proteinen nachgewiesen werden. Außerdem konnten die beiden Proteine Ago1 und Ago2 in vitro sowie in vivo detektiert werden. Ago2 interagiert mit hnRNP A2, Mbp mRNA und sncRNA715, womit es als neue Komponente des Mbp mRNA Transportgranulas identifiziert werden konnte. Des Weiteren colokalisiert Ago2 mit der Fyn‐Kinase und alle vier Argonaut‐Proteine werden Fyn‐abhängig Tyrosin‐phosphoryliert. Die Fyn‐abhängige Phosphorylierung der Granula‐Komponenten in Antwort auf axo‐glialen Kontakt führt zum Zerfall des RNA‐Granulas und zur gesteigerten MBP Proteinsynthese. Dies wird möglicherweise durch Abstoßungskräfte der negativ geladenen phosphorylierten Proteine vermittelt, wodurch diese sich voneinander und von der mRNA entfernen. Durch die Ablösung des miRISCs von der Mbp mRNA wird die Translation möglicherweise reaktiviert und die Myelinisierung kann starten. Mit der Identifizierung von Ago2 als neuer Mbp mRNA Transportgranula‐Komponente konnte ein weiterer Einblick in die Regulation der lokalen Translation von MBP gewährt werden. Das Verständnis dieses Prozesses ist entscheidend für die Entwicklung neuer Therapien von demyelinisierenden Erkrankungen, da neue Faktoren als eventuelle Ziele für pharmakologische Manipulationen identifiziert und möglichweise neue Therapiemöglichkeiten entstehen könnten. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde die translationale Regulation von Mbp mRNA in Schwann Zellen untersucht. Auch Schwann Zell‐Mbp wird als mRNA translational inaktiviert zur axo‐glialen Kontaktstelle transportiert, wo vermutlich auch lokale Translation in Antwort auf spezifische Signale stattfindet. Allerdings bleiben die genauen Mechanismen der mRNA‐Lokalisation und damit verbundenen translationalen Repression bislang ungeklärt. Es konnte hier gezeigt werden, dass auch in Schwann Zellen die sncRNA715 exprimiert wird und die Translation von Mbp reguliert. Überexpression der synthetischen sncRNA715 führt zu einer signifikanten Reduktion der MBP Proteinmengen in differenzierten primären Schwann Zellen. Damit kann vermutet werden, dass die Regulation der lokalen MBP Proteinsynthese in Schwann Zellen der in Oligodendrozyten ähnelt

Immunology of multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS) leading to demyelination, axonal damage, and progressive neurologic disability. The development of MS is influenced by environmental factors, particularly the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), and genetic factors, which include specific HLA types, particularly DRB1*1501-DQA1*0102-DQB1*0602, and a predisposition to autoimmunity in general. MS patients have increased circulating T-cell and antibody reactivity to myelin proteins and gangliosides. It is proposed that the role of EBV is to infect autoreactive B cells that then seed the CNS and promote the survival of autoreactive T cells there. It is also proposed that the clinical attacks of relapsing-remitting MS are orchestrated by myelin-reactive T cells entering the white matter of the CNS from the blood, and that the progressive disability in primary and secondary progressive MS is caused by the action of autoantibodies produced in the CNS by ­meningeal lymphoid follicles with germinal centers.

Terapêuticas antigénio-especificas no tratamento das doenças desmielinizantes: estudos sobre a vacinação com ADN e a descoberta de um novo alvo antigénico

RESUMO A Esclerose Múltipla (EM) é uma doença desmielinizante crónica do Sistema Nervoso Central (SNC), provocada, em grande parte, por um ataque imuno-mediado contra diversos elementos da bainha de mielina. Dentro dos alvos antigénicos desta resposta autoimune, vários componentes proteicos e lipídicos da mielina têm vindo a ser identificados ao longo dos anos, entre os quais se destacam a proteína básica de mielina(MBP), glicoproteína ligodendrocitária da mielina (MOG), proteína proteolipídica (PLP) e glicoproteína associada à mielina (MAG). Com o desenvolvimento do modelo animal de Encefalomielite Autoimune Experimental (EAE), diversas terapias antigénio-específicas foram desenhadas, baseadas na modificação benéfica da resposta autoimune contra a mielina, tais como a administração de mielina ou seus componentes, os copolímeros terapêuticos, os ligandos peptídeos alterados e, recentemente, a vacinação com ácido desoxirribonucleico (ADN) codificador de proteínas de mielina, integrado em plasmídeos e purificado para administração parentérica. Neste trabalho, apresentamos os resultados de um extenso conjunto de experiências, subordinadas a dois temas fundamentais: 1) avaliação do potencial terapêutico, e dos mecanismos de acção, da vacinação tolerizadora com ADN codificador de proteínas de mielina (MBP, MOG, PLP, MAG) na EAE, e da associação desta vacinação com a administração de ADN de citocinas Th2, ou de oligonucleótidos imunomoduladores; 2) identificação e caracterização da resposta imune contra um novo componente da mielina com potencial antigénico, a proteína inibidora do recrescimento axonal, Nogo-A. No que respeita à vacinação com ADN, os nossos resultados comprovam a eficácia desta terapêutica antigénio-específica na prevenção e tratamento da EAE. Os seus mecanismos de acção incluem, entre outros, a supressão anérgica da proliferação antigénioespecífica dos linfócitos T anti-mielina (no modo de prevenção da doença), o enviesamento Th2 da resposta imune (quando co-administrada com a vacina de ADN codificadora da citocina IL-4, funcionando como terapia génica local), e a redução da diversificação de epítopos da resposta humoral anti-mielina, avaliada através de myelin spotted arrays. A associação das vacinas de ADN com oligonucleótidos imunomoduladores GpG, desenvolvidos para contrariar as sequências CpG imunoestimuladoras presentes no vector de vacinação, levou à melhoria da sua eficácia terapêutica, devida, provavelmente, ao efeito estimulador preferencial dos oligonucleótidos GpG sobre linfócitos Th2 e sobre células reguladoras NK-T. Com base nestes resultados a vacinação com ADN foi desenvolvida para o tratamento da EM em humanos, com ensaios clínicos a decorrerem neste momento. Em relação à proteína Nogo-A, estudos de estrutura primária e de previsão de antigenicidade identificaram a região Nogo-66 como alvo antigénico potencial para a EAE. Nas estirpes de ratinho SJL/J e C57BL/6, fomos capazes de induzir sinais clínicos e histológicos de EAE após imunização com os epítopos encefalitogénicos Nogo1-22, Nogo23- 44 e Nogo45-66, utilizando protocolos de quebra de tolerância imune. Ao mesmo tempo, identificámos e caracterizámos uma resposta linfocitária T específica contra os antigénios contidos na região Nogo-66, e uma resposta linfocitária B com diversificação intra e intermolecular a vários determinantes presentes noutras proteínas da mielina. A transferência adoptiva de linhas celulares Th2 anti-Nogo45-66, levou à melhoria clínica e histológica da EAE em animais recipientes induzidos com outros antigénios de mielina, após migração destas células para o SNC. Estes dados comprovam a importância da Nogo-66 como antigénio na EAE, e a eficácia de terapias antigénio-específicas nela baseadas. No seu conjunto, os nossos resultados confirmam o potencial terapêutico das vacinas de ADN codificadoras de proteínas de mielina, bem como a importância dos encefalitogénios contidos na proteína Nogo-A para a fisiopatologia da EAE e da EM, com eventual relevância para o desenvolvimento de novas terapias antigénio-específicas. O aperfeiçoamento futuro destas terapias poderá levar, eventualmente, a uma capacidade de manipulação da resposta imune que permita o tratamento eficaz das doenças inflamatórias desmielinizantes, como a Esclerose Múltipla. ABSTRACT Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic demyelinating disease of the Central Nervous System (CNS), caused, mainly, by an immune-mediated attack against several elements of the myelin sheath. Among the antigenic targets for this autoimmune response, several proteic and lipidic myelin components have been identified throughout the years, of which myelin basic protein (MBP), myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG), proteolipidic protein (PLP), and myelin associated glycoprotein (MAG) are the best characterized. With the development of the animal model for MS, Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE), several antigen-specific therapies have been designed, based on beneficial modifications of the autoimmune response against myelin. These have included myelin and myelin component administration, therapeutic copolymers, altered peptide ligands and, more recently, vaccination with myelin-protein encoding deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), integrated into plasmids and purified for parenteral administration. In this work we present the results of an extensive series of experiments, subordinate to two fundamental areas: 1) evaluating the therapeutic potential, and mechanisms of action, of tolerizing myelin protein (MBP, MOG, PLP, MAG) DNA vaccination in EAE, alone and in association with Th2 cytokine DNA administration, or immunomodulatory oligonucleotides; 2) identifying and characterizing the immuneresponse against a new myelin component with antigenic potential, the axonal regrowth inhibitor Nogo-A. Regarding DNA vaccination, our results prove the efficacy of this antigen-specific therapy for the prevention and treatment of EAE. Its mechanisms of action include, among others, anergic suppression of antigen-specific T-cell proliferation against myelin (in prevention mode), Th2 biasing of the immune response (when co-administered with the IL- 4 codifying DNA vaccine, acting as local gene therapy), and reduction of epitope spreading of the anti-myelin antibody response, assessed by myelin spotted arrays. The combination of myelin DNA vaccination with the administration of GpG immunomodulatory oligonucleotides, designed to counteract immunostimulatory CpG motifs present in the vaccination vector, led to an improvement in therapeutic efficacy, probably due to the preferential stimulatory effect of GpG oligonucleotides on Th2 lymphocytes and on regulatory NK-T cells. Based on these results, tolerizing DNA vaccination is being developed for human use, with ongoing clinical trials. As concerns the Nogo-A protein, based on studies of primary structure and prediction of antigenicity, we identified the Nogo-66 region (responsible for the most of the inhibitory capacity of this protein) as a potential antigenic target for EAE. In the SJL/Jand C57BL/6 mouse strains, we were able to induce clinical and histological signs of EAE,after immunization with the encefalitogenic epitopes Nogo1-22, Nogo23-44 and Nogo45-66,using a tolerance breakdown protocol. Concomitantly, we identified and characterized a specific T cell response against these antigens, together with a B cell response which showed extensive intra and intermolecular epitope spread to several determinants present in other myelin proteins. Adoptive transfer of nti-Nogo45-66 Th2 cell lines resulted in clinical and histological improvement of EAE in recipient animals induced with other myelin antigens, after intraparenchymal CNS migration of anti-Nogo cells. These data confirm the relevance of Nogo-66 as an antigen in EAE, as well as the efficacy of antigenspecific therapies based on the response against this protein.In conclusion, our results substantiate the therapeutic potential of myelin-encoding DNA vaccination, as well as the importance of encefalitogenic epitopes present in the Nogo-A protein for the pathophysiology of EAE and MS, with potential relevance for the creation of new antigen specific-therapies. The future development of these therapies may eventually lead to a degree of manipulation of the immune response that allows the effective treatment of autoimmune, inflammatory, demyelinating diseases, such as Multiple Sclerosis.

Inhibition of glial cell proinflammatory activities by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma agonist confers partial protection during antimyelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein demyelination in vitro.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma) is a member of the nuclear hormone superfamily originally characterized as a regulator of adipocyte differentiation and lipid metabolism. In addition, PPAR-gamma has important immunomodulatory functions. If the effect of PPAR-gamma's activation in T-cell-mediated demyelination has been recently demonstrated, nothing is known about the role of PPAR-gamma in antibody-induced demyelination in the absence of T-cell interactions and monocyte/macrophage activation. Therefore, we investigated PPAR-gamma's involvement by using an in vitro model of inflammatory demyelination in three-dimensional aggregating rat brain cell cultures. We found that PPAR-gamma was not constitutively expressed in these cultures but was strongly up-regulated following demyelination mediated by antibodies directed against myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) in the presence of complement. Pioglitazone, a selective PPAR-gamma agonist, partially protected aggregates from anti-MOG demyelination. Heat shock responses and the expression of the proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha were diminished by pioglitazone treatment. Therefore, pioglitazone protection seems to be linked to an inhibition of glial cell proinflammatory activities following anti-MOG induced demyelination. We show that PPAR-gamma agonists act not only on T cells but also on antibody-mediated demyelination. This may represent a significant benefit in treating multiple sclerosis patients.

Demyelination induced by protein kinase C-activating tumor promoters in aggregating brain cell cultures.

The plasticity of mature oligodendrocytes was studied in aggregating brain cell cultures at the period of maximal expression of myelin marker proteins. The protein kinase C (PKC)-activating tumor promoters mezerein and phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), but not the inactive phorbol ester analog 4alpha-PMA, caused a pronounced decrease of myelin basic protein (MBP) content and 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphohydrolase (CNP) activity. In contrast, myelin/oligodendrocyte protein (MOG) content was affected relatively little. Northern blot analyses showed a rapid reduction of MBP and PLP gene expression induced by mezerein, and both morphological and biochemical findings indicate a drastic loss of compact myelin. During the acute phase of demyelination, only a relatively small increase in cell death was perceptible by in situ end labeling and in situ nick translation. Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) also reduced the levels of the oligodendroglial differentiation markers and enhanced the demyelinating effects of the tumor promoters. The present results suggest that PKC activation resulted in severe demyelination and partial loss of the oligodendrocyte-differentiated phenotype.