Biofouling and microbially influenced corrosion of stainless steels

Stainless steels are among the most investigated materials on biofouling and microbially-influenced corrosion (MIC). Although, generally corrosion-resistant owing to tenacious and passive surface film due to chromium, stainless steels are susceptible to extensive biofouling in subsoil, fresh water and sea water and chemical process environments. Biofilms influence their corrosion behavior due to corrosion potential ennoblement and sub-surface pitting. Both aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms catalyse microbial corrosion of stainless steels through biotic and abiotic mechanisms. MIC of stainless steels is common adjacent to welds at the heat-affected zone. Both austenite and delta ferrite phases may be susceptible. Even super stainless steels are found to be amenable to biofouling and MIC. Microbiological, electrochemical as well as physicochemical aspects of MIC pertaining to stainless steels in different environments are analyzed.

Effect of sulfate-reducing bacteria on corrosion behavior of mild steel in sea mud

Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) is very severe corrosion for constructions buried under sea mud environment. Therefore it is of great importance to carry out the investigation of the corrosion behavior of marine steel in sea mud. In this paper, the effect of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) on corrosion behavior of mild steel in sea mud was studied by weight loss, dual-compartment cell, electronic probe microanalysis (EPMA), transmission electron microscopy (TEM).combined with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The results showed that corrosion rate and galvanic current were influenced by the metabolic activity of SRB. In the environment of sea mud containing SRB, the original corrosion products, ferric (oxyhydr) oxide, transformed to iron sulfide. With the excess of the dissolved H2S, the composition of the protective layer formed of FeS transformed to FeS2 or other non-stoichiometric polysulphide, which changed the state of the former layer and accelerated the corrosion process.

Avaliação de biocidas no controle da corrosão microbiologicamente induzida do aço carbono 1020 por bactérias redutoras de sulfato

Bactérias redutoras de sulfato (BRS) são os principais micro-organismos envolvidos na corrosão microbiologicamente induzida (CMI). Estas bactérias reduzem o sulfato, tendo como resultado a produção de H2S, o que pode influenciar os processos anódico e catódico na corrosão de materiais metálicos em ambientes marinhos, óleos e solos úmidos. Uma das formas de prevenir e controlar esse tipo de corrosão é a adição de biocidas ao meio corrosivo. Esta dissertação tem como objetivo avaliar o uso de biocidas no controle da CMI do aço AISI 1020 por BRS. Para isto, o comportamento da CMI no aço foi avaliado em água do mar sintética, em condições de anaerobiose, na ausência e na presença de uma cultura mista contendo BRS. Um biocida natural (óleo de alho) e outro comercial (glutaraldeído) foram utilizados para controlar a corrosão causada por estas bactérias. Duas formas de adição de biocida foram avaliadas: antes da formação do biofilme e após sua formação na superfície do metal. O crescimento microbiano na superfície do aço foi avaliado através da quantificação das BRS sésseis, pelo método do número mais provável (NMP). O comportamento eletroquímico do aço, na ausência e na presença de BRS e também para os ensaios com biocidas, foi estudado através das técnicas de espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica (EIE) e polarização potenciodinâmica, sempre usando água do mar sintética como meio eletrolítico. A formação de biofilme e de produtos de corrosão na superfície do aço foi observada através da microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV). Os resultados mostraram que o aço exposto ao meio contendo BRS apresentou um processo corrosivo mais acelerado, quando comparado aos sistemas na ausência de micro-organismo. Esse processo foi evidenciado por um decréscimo na magnitude do arco capacitivo, nos ensaios de EIE, e um aumento da densidade de corrente de corrosão (Icorr), nos ensaios de polarização. Na análise de MEV, foi possível observar a formação de corrosão localizada após a remoção do biofilme da superfície. Os ensaios com biocidas, adicionados antes da formação de biofilmes, mostraram uma redução no número de bactérias sésseis, quando comparados com os ensaios sem biocida realizados pelo mesmo período de tempo (7 dias). Foi verificado também um decréscimo do processo corrosivo do aço, evidenciado através de aumento nos arcos capacitivos, nos ensaios de EIE e pelos menores valores de Icorr nos ensaios de polarização, quando comparados com o biofilme formado sem biocidas, nas mesmas condições. Apesar de não ter inibido completamente o crescimento das BRS sésseis, o óleo de alho apresentou maior redução no processo corrosivo quando comparado ao glutaraldeído, indicando sua possível aplicação como biocida natural nestas condições. Os ensaios realizados com biocidas adicionados após a formação do biofilme mostraram que o glutaraldeído apresentou alta eficácia em reduzir o número de células sésseis. Já o óleo de alho exibiu uma ação menos efetiva, sugerindo que este composto não conseguiu penetrar completamente a matriz do biofilme. Entretanto, ambos causaram aceleração do processo corrosivo do aço no meio estudado após 7 dias de exposição

Fungal diversity associated with Brazilian energy transmission towers

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Effects of sulfate-reducing bacteria on the corrosion behavior of carbon steel

The influences of the growing process of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) in seawater system on the medium state and corrosion behavior of carbon steel were studied by detecting solution state parameters and using corrosion electrochemical methods. The growing process of SRB in the seawater shows the three stages of growing, death and residual phases. The solution state parameters of the concentration of sulfide, the pH value and the redox potential changed during the three stages of the SRB growing process. And the corrosion rate of D36 carbon steel was accelerated during the growing phase and stable during the death and residual phases. The results indicate that the medium state and the corrosion rate of the steel do not depend on the number of active SRB, but depend on the accumulation of the metabolism products of SRB. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Avaliação da corrosão microbiológica do aço carbono 1020 em água do mar sintética na presença de bactérias redutoras de sulfato

Bactérias redutoras de sulfato (BRS) possuem um papel importante na corrosão de ligas metálicas expostas em hábitats marinhos, óleos e solos úmidos. A redução do sulfato por estas bactérias resulta na produção de H2S, podendo influenciar os processos anódico e catódico na corrosão de materiais. Neste trabalho, o comportamento da corrosão microbiológica no aço carbono AISI 1020 foi avaliada em meio Postgate C, na presença e na ausência de BRS, as quais foram isoladas da camada de ferrugem presente numa tubulação submersa da Baía de Guanabara RJ. A taxa de corrosão e o comportamento eletroquímico do aço nas duas condições foram investigados através dos métodos de perda de massa e de polarização potenciodinâmica. A formação do biofilme e dos produtos de corrosão na superfície do aço foram observados por microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) e por espectroscopia de energia dispersiva (EDS). Em complementação, foi realizada a quantificação das BRS (planctônicas e sésseis) pelo método do número mais provável (NMP). A presença de BRS no meio ocasionou o deslocamento do potencial de corrosão para valores mais negativos em todos os tempos de ensaio estudados, indicando um aumento no processo corrosivo. Nos ensaios de perda de massa, a taxa de corrosão do aço carbono foi maior na ausência de BRS, provavelmente devido à formação de um biofilme na superfície do metal nos ensaios com inóculo, e a uma menor tendência de haver corrosão generalizada neste tipo de meio. As micrografias de MEV revelaram a presença de agregado celular na superfície do aço carbono durante o experimento, e a presença de pites profundos após remoção do biofilme, mostrando prevalência deste tipo de corrosão. Com 35 dias de ensaio, a densidade de corrente de corrosão aumentou na presença de BRS

硫酸盐还原菌对海洋用钢腐蚀行为的影响及其控制

本文研究了海水和海泥环境中硫酸盐还原菌（SRB）对海洋用钢腐蚀行为的影响及控制，探讨了SRB影响下的腐蚀机制，腐蚀产物的形成及转化过程，并研究了含有SRB的海泥环境中阴极保护对钢腐蚀的影响。 从我国青岛胶州湾海底泥中富集培养出SRB，进行分子生物学分析确定了研究菌种为肠状菌属，并以荧光显微镜和透射电镜（TEM）观察了SRB的形貌特征。 以失重法、电偶腐蚀、交流阻抗（EIS）、电子探针（EPMA）、TEM等手段研究了海洋用钢在含有活性SRB的海泥和海水环境中，从最初的细菌附着到代谢产物导致腐蚀产物从氧化物到硫化物的转化，腐蚀产物的形貌及成分确定，对腐蚀由抑制到加速的过程。此外从钢基体与腐蚀产物界面角度对SRB点蚀的形成和扩展，以及单晶氧化铁立方体在SRB菌液中的生物矿化进行了探讨。 对埋在含有SRB海泥中的低碳钢的阴极保护的可靠性进行评价，重点研究活性细菌存在下不同阴极保护电位下的交流阻抗行为，并结合失重法测试不同电位下的腐蚀速度、MPN法细菌计数以得出保护电位、腐蚀速度以及细菌活性之间的关系。为达到有效的保护，-950mV (CSE)甚至更低的保护电位是需要的。较高保护电位下，细菌的生长活性与稳定性低于低电位。

Electrodeposition on aluminium and its alloys

Aluminium alloys S1C, NS4, HE9, LM25 and the 'difficult' zinc containing U.S. specification alloy used for automobile bumpers (X-7046), have been successfully electroplated using pretreatments which utilized either conventional immersion, elevated temperature or electrolytic modified alloy zincate (M.A.Z.) deposits. Satisfactory adhesion in excess of 7•5 KN m -I was only achieved on X-7046 using an electrolytic M.A.Z. pretreatment. The limitations of simple zincate solutions were demonstrated. Growth of deposits ~as monitored using a weight loss technique and the morphology of the various deposits studied using scanning electron microscopy. The characteristics of a specific alloy and processing sequence selected had a significant influence on the growth and morphology of the N.A.Z. deposi t. These all affected subsequent adhesion of electrodeposited nickel. The advantages of double-dip sequences were confirmed. Superior adhesion was associated with a uniform, thin, fine grained M.A.Z. deposit which exhibited rapid and complete surface coverage of the aluminium alloy. The presence of this preferred type deposit did not guarantee adhesion because a certain degree of etching was essential. For a satisfactory combination of alloy and M.A.Z. pretreatment, there was a specific optimum film weight per unit area which resulted in maximum adhesion. An ideal film weight of 0•06 :!: 0•01 mg cm-2was determined for S1C. Different film weights were required for the other alloys due to variations in surface topography caused by pretreatment. S1C was the easiest alloy on which to achieve high bond strength. Peel adhesion was not directly related to tensile strength of the alloy. The highest adhesion value was obtained on S1C which had the lowest strength of the alloys studied. The characteristics of the failure surfaces after peeling depended on alloy type, adhesion level and pretreatment employed. Plated aluminium alloys exhibited excellent corrosion resistance when appropriately pretreated. The M.A.Z. layer was not preferentially attacked. There was a threshold value of adhesion below which corrosion performance ~a8 poor. Alloy type, pretreatment and coating system influenced corrosion performance. Microporous chromium gave better corrosion protection than decorative chromium.

Corrosion of carbon steel influenced by anaerobic biofilm in natural seawater

The bacteria in the anaerobic biofilm on rusted carbon steel immersed in natural seawater were characterized by culturing and molecular biology techniques. Two types of anaerobic bacterium, sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) Desulfovibrio caledoniensis and iron-reducing bacteria Clostridium sp. uncultured were found. The compositions of the rust layer were also analyzed and we found that iron oxide and sulfate green rust were the major components. To investigate the corrosion mechanisms, electrochemical impedance spectra was obtained based on the isolated sulfate-reducing bacteria and mixed bacteria cultured from rust layer in laboratory culture conditions. We found that single species produced iron sulfide and accelerated corrosion, but mixed species produced sulfate green rust and inhibited corrosion. The anaerobic corrosion mechanism of steel was proposed and its environmental significance was discussed. (c) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Characteristics of sulfide corrosion products on 316L stainless steel surfaces in the presence of sulfate-reducing bacteria

It has been found that microbial communities play a significant role in the corrosion process of steels exposed in aquatic and soil environments. Biomineralization influenced by microorganisms is believed to be responsible for the formation of corrosion products via complicated pathways of electron transfer between microbial cells and the metal. In this study, sulfide corrosion products were investigated for 316L stainless steel exposed to media with sulfate-reducing bacteria media for 7 weeks. The species of inorganic and organic sulfides in the passive film on the stainless steel were observed by epifluorescence microscope, environmental scanning electron microscope combined with energy dispersive spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The transformation from metal oxides to metal sulfides influenced by sulfate-reducing bacteria is emphasized in this paper. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Cytocidal amino acid starvation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans acetolactate synthase (ilv2{Delta}) mutants is influenced by the carbon source and rapamycin.

The isoleucine and valine biosynthetic enzyme acetolactate synthase (Ilv2p) is an attractive antifungal drug target, since the isoleucine and valine biosynthetic pathway is not present in mammals, Saccharomyces cerevisiae ilv2Delta mutants do not survive in vivo, Cryptococcus neoformans ilv2 mutants are avirulent, and both S. cerevisiae and Cr. neoformans ilv2 mutants die upon isoleucine and valine starvation. To further explore the potential of Ilv2p as an antifungal drug target, we disrupted Candida albicans ILV2, and demonstrated that Ca. albicans ilv2Delta mutants were significantly attenuated in virulence, and were also profoundly starvation-cidal, with a greater than 100-fold reduction in viability after only 4 h of isoleucine and valine starvation. As fungicidal starvation would be advantageous for drug design, we explored the basis of the starvation-cidal phenotype in both S. cerevisiae and Ca. albicans ilv2Delta mutants. Since the mutation of ILV1, required for the first step of isoleucine biosynthesis, did not suppress the ilv2Delta starvation-cidal defects in either species, the cidal phenotype was not due to alpha-ketobutyrate accumulation. We found that starvation for isoleucine alone was more deleterious in Ca. albicans than in S. cerevisiae, and starvation for valine was more deleterious than for isoleucine in both species. Interestingly, while the target of rapamycin (TOR) pathway inhibitor rapamycin further reduced S. cerevisiae ilv2Delta starvation viability, it increased Ca. albicans ilv1Delta and ilv2Delta viability. Furthermore, the recovery from starvation was dependent on the carbon source present during recovery for S. cerevisiae ilv2Delta mutants, reminiscent of isoleucine and valine starvation inducing a viable but non-culturable-like state in this species, while Ca. albicans ilv1Delta and ilv2 Delta viability was influenced by the carbon source present during starvation, supporting a role for glucose wasting in the Ca. albicans cidal phenotype.

Probabilistic modeling of structural deterioration of reinforced concrete beams under saline environment corrosion

For existing reinforced concrete structures exposed to saline or marine conditions, there is an increasing engineering interest in their remaining safety and serviceability. A significant factor is the corrosion of steel reinforcement. At present there is little field experience and other data available. This limits the possibility for developing purely empirical models for strength and performance deterioration for use in structural safety and serviceability assessment. An alternative approach using theoretical concepts and probabilistic modeling is proposed herein. It is based on the evidence that the rate of diffusion of chlorides is influenced by internal damage to the concrete surrounding the reinforcement. This may be due to localized stresses resulting from external loading or through concrete shrinkage. Usually, the net effect is that the time to initiation of active corrosion is shortened, leading to greater localized corrosion and earlier reduction of ultimate capacity and structural stiffness. The proposed procedure is applied to an example beam and compared to experimental observations,including estimates of uncertainty in the remaining ultimate moment capacity and beam stiffness. Reasonably good agreement between the results of the proposed procedure and the experiment was found

Micro-abrasion-corrosion of cast CoCrMo-Effects of micron and sub-micron sized abrasives

The abrasion damage on retrieved CoCrMo based hip joints is reported to be influenced by the entrainment of micron and sub-micron sized debris/hard particles. This paper represents the first attempt to look into the effects of relatively soft abrasives with micron and sub-micron dimensions on the abrasion mechanisms and the abrasion-corrosion performance of the cast CoCrMo in simulated hip joint environments. A modified micro-abrasion tester incorporating a liquid tank and a three-electrode electrochemical cell was used. Al O (300 nm and 1 μm) and sub-micron sized BaSO abrasives were chosen as being comparable in the size and hardness to the wear particles found in vivo. Results show that the specific wear rates of cast CoCrMo are dependent on the abrasive particle size, hardness and volume concentration. Larger particle size, higher hardness and greater abrasive volume fractions gave greater wear rates. The wear-induced corrosion current generally increases with increasing wear rates, and the presence of proteins seems to suppress the wear-induced corrosion current especially when abrasive volume fractions were high. This study shows that the nature of abrasives and the test solutions are both important in determining the wear mechanisms and the abrasion-corrosion response of cast CoCrMo. These findings provide new and important insights into the in vivo wear mechanisms of CoCrMo. © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Influence of micro and macro cracks due to sustained loading on chloride-induced corrosion of reinforced concrete beams

Chloride-induced corrosion of steel is one of the most commonly found problems affecting the durability of reinforced concrete structures in both marine environment and where de-icing salt is used in winter. As the significance of micro-cracks on chloride induced corrosion is not well documented, 24 reinforced concrete beams (4 different mixes - one containing Portland cement and another containing 35% ground granulated blastfurnace slag at 0.45 and 0.65 water-binder ratios) were subjected to three levels of sustained lateral loading (0%, 50% and 100% of the load that can induce 0.1 mm wide cracks on the tension surface of beam - F_0.1) in this work. The beams were then subjected to weekly cycles of wetting with 10% NaCl solution for 1 day followed by 6 days of drying at 20 (±1) °C up to an exposure period of 60 weeks. The progress of corrosion of steel was monitored using half-cell potential apparatus and linear polarisation resistance (LPR) test. These results have shown that macro-cracks (at load F_0.1) and micro-cracks (at 50% of F_0.1) greatly accelerated both the initiation and propagation stages of the corrosion of steel in the concrete beams. Lager crack widths for the F_0.1 load cases caused higher corrosion rates initially, but after about 38 weeks of exposure, there was a decrease in the rate of corrosion. However, such trends could not be found in 50% F _0.1 group of beams. The extent of chloride ingress also was influenced by the load level. These findings suggest that the effect of micro-cracking at lower loads are very important for deciding the service life of reinforced concrete structures in chloride exposure environments. © 2014 4th International Conference on the Durability of Concrete Structures.

Chloride transport and the resulting corrosion of steel bars in alkali activated slag concretes

As the relative performance of alkali activated slag (AAS) concretes in comparison to Portland cement (PC) counterparts for chloride transport and resulting corrosion of steel bars is not clear, an investigation was carried out and the results are reported in this paper. The effect of alkali concentration and modulus of sodium silicate solution used in AAS was studied. Chloride transport and corrosion properties were assessed with the help of electrical resistivity, non-steady state chloride diffusivity, onset of corrosion, rate of corrosion and pore solution chemistry. It was found that: (i) although chloride content at surface was higher for the AAS concretes, they had lower chloride diffusivity than PC concrete; (ii) pore structure, ionic exchange and interaction effect of hydrates strongly influenced the chloride transport in the AAS concretes; (iii) steel corrosion resistance of the AAS concretes was comparable to that of PC concrete under intermittent chloride ponding regime, with the exception of 6% Na2O and Ms of 1.5; (iv) the corrosion behaviour of the AAS concretes was significantly influenced by ionic exchange, carbonation and sulphide concentration; (v) the increase of alkali concentration of the activator generally increased the resistance of AAS concretes to chloride transport and reduced its resulting corrosion, and a value of 1.5 was found to be an optimum modulus for the activator for improving the chloride transport and the corrosion resistance.