An approach to costs and energy consumption in private urban Spanish Mediterranean landscapes from a simplified model in sprinkle irrigation

The number of private gardens has increased in recent years, creating a more pleasant urban model, but not without having an environmental impact, including increased energy consumption, which is the focus of this study. The estimation of costs and energy consumption for the generic typology of private urban gardens is based on two simplifying assumptions: square geometry with surface areas from 25 to 500 m2 and hydraulic design with a single pipe. In total, eight sprinkler models have been considered, along with their possible working pressures, and 31 pumping units grouped into 5 series that adequately cover the range of required flow rates and pressures, resultin in 495 hydraulic designs repeated for two climatically different locations in the Spanish Mediterranean area (Girona and Elche). Mean total irrigation costs for the locality with lower water needs (Girona) and greater needs (Elche) were € 2,974 ha-¹ yr-¹ and € 3,383 ha-¹ yr-¹, respectively. Energy costs accounted for 11.4% of the total cost for the first location, and 23.0% for the second. While a suitable choice of the hydraulic elements of the setup is essential, as it may provide average energy savings of 77%, due to the low energy cost in relation to the cost of installation, the potential energy savings do not constitute a significant incentive for the irrigation system design. The low efficiency of the pumping units used in this type of garden is the biggest obstacle and constraint to achieving a high quality energy solution

Fire management, climate change and their interacting effects on birds in complex Mediterranean landscapes: dynamic distribution modelling of an early-successional species - the near-threatened Dartford Warbler (Sylvia undata)

The current challenge in a context of major environmental changes is to anticipate the responses of species to future landscape and climate scenarios. In the Mediterranean basin, climate change is one the most powerful driving forces of fire dynamics, with fire frequency and impact having markedly increased in recent years. Species distribution modelling plays a fundamental role in this challenge, but better integration of available ecological knowledge is needed to adequately guide conservation efforts. Here, we quantified changes in habitat suitability of an early-succession bird in Catalonia, the Dartford Warbler (Sylvia undata) ― globally evaluated as Near Threatened in the IUCN Red List. We assessed potential changes in species distributions between 2000 and 2050 under different fire management and climate change scenarios and described landscape dynamics using a spatially-explicit fire-succession model that simulates fire impacts in the landscape and post-fire regeneration (MEDFIRE model). Dartford Warbler occurrence data were acquired at two different spatial scales from: 1) the Atlas of European Breeding Birds (EBCC) and 2) Catalan Breeding Bird Atlas (CBBA). Habitat suitability was modelled using five widely-used modelling techniques in an ensemble forecasting framework. Our results indicated considerable habitat suitability losses (ranging between 47% and 57% in baseline scenarios), which were modulated to a large extent by fire regime changes derived from fire management policies and climate changes. Such result highlighted the need for taking the spatial interaction between climate changes, fire-mediated landscape dynamics and fire management policies into account for coherently anticipating habitat suitability changes of early succession bird species. We conclude that fire management programs need to be integrated into conservation plans to effectively preserve sparsely forested and early succession habitats and their associated species in the face of global environmental change.

Monitoring spatial and temporal dynamics of bird communities in Mediterranean landscapes affected by largewildfires = Seguimiento de la dinámica espacial y temporal de comunidades de aves en paisajes mediterráneos afectados por grandes fuegos

We presented a bird-monitoring database inMediterranean landscapes (Catalonia, NE Spain) affected by wildfires and we evaluated: 1) the spatial and temporal variability in the bird community composition and 2) the influence of pre-fire habitat configuration in the composition of bird communities. The DINDIS database results fromthemonitoring of bird communities occupying all areas affected by large wildfires in Catalonia since 2000.We used bird surveys conducted from 2006 to 2009 and performed a principal components analysis to describe two main gradients of variation in the composition of bird communities, which were used as descriptors of bird communities in subsequent analyses. We then analysed the relationships of these community descriptors with bioclimatic regions within Catalonia, time since fire and pre-fire vegetation (forest or shrubland).We have conducted 1,918 bird surveys in 567 transects distributed in 56 burnt areas. Eight out of the twenty most common detected species have an unfavourable conservation status, most of them being associated to open-habitats. Both bird communities’ descriptors had a strong regional component and were related to pre-fire vegetation, and to a lesser extent to the time since fire.We came to the conclusion that the responses of bird communities to wildfires are heterogeneous, complex and context dependent. Large-scale monitoring datasets, such as DINDIS, might allow identifying factors acting at different spatial and temporal scales that affect the dynamics of species and communities, giving additional information on the causes under general trends observed using other monitoring systems

Land Cover Mapping by an Optimized Object-Oriented Approach. Case of Study Mediterranean Landscapes

Remote sensing information from spaceborne and airborne platforms continues to provide valuable data for different environmental monitoring applications. In this sense, high spatial resolution im-agery is an important source of information for land cover mapping. For the processing of high spa-tial resolution images, the object-based methodology is one of the most commonly used strategies. However, conventional pixel-based methods, which only use spectral information for land cover classification, are inadequate for classifying this type of images. This research presents a method-ology to characterise Mediterranean land covers in high resolution aerial images by means of an object-oriented approach. It uses a self-calibrating multi-band region growing approach optimised by pre-processing the image with a bilateral filtering. The obtained results show promise in terms of both segmentation quality and computational efficiency.

Plant-pollinator biodiversity and pollination services in a complex Mediterranean landscape

Mediterranean landscapes comprise a complex mosaic of different habitats that vary in the diversity of their floral communities, pollinator communities and pollination services. Using the Greek Island of Lesvos as a model system, we assess the biodiversity value of six common habitats and measure ecosystemic 'health' using pollen grain deposition in three core flowering plants as a measure of pollination services. Three fire-driven habitats were assessed: freshly burnt areas, fully regenerated pine forests and intermediate age scrub; in addition we examined oak woodlands, actively managed olive groves and groves that had been abandoned from agriculture. Oak woodlands, pine forests and managed olive groves had the highest diversity of bees. The habitat characteristics responsible for structuring bee communities were: floral diversity, floral abundance, nectar energy availability and the variety of nectar resources present. Pollination services in two of our plant species, which were pollinated by a limited sub-set of the pollinator community, indicated that pollination levels were highest in the burnt and mature pine habitats. The third species, which was open to all flower visitors, indicated that oak woodlands had the highest levels of pollination from generalist species. Pollination was always more effective in managed olive groves than in abandoned groves. However, the two most common species of bee, the honeybee and a bumblebee, were not the primary pollinators within these habitats. We conclude that the three habitats of greatest overall value for plant-pollinator communities and provision of the healthiest pollination services are pine forests, oak woodland and managed olive groves. We indicate how the highest value habitats may be maintained in a complex landscape to safeguard and enhance pollination function within these habitats and potentially in adjoining agricultural areas. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Generalities of vertebrate responses to landscape composition and configuration gradients in a highly heterogeneous Mediterranean region

Aim To examine the distributional patterns of vertebrates (including birds, bats, carnivores and lagomorphs) along landscape composition and configuration gradients to better understand the effects of landscape modification on occurrence patterns at both species and community level. Location The region of Alentejo, a forest-dominated area of southern Portugal. Methods The study area was framed using 1647 hexagonal plots, each of 259 ha in size. Composition and configuration gradients were obtained for each plot by integrating the proportions of the main land cover types and their configuration patterns using multivariate analyses. Species-specific vertebrate responses were investigated using data from 75 plots in which carnivores, bats and lagomorphs were sampled, and from 135 plots in the case of birds. Community- level responses were investigated through changes in species richness and beta-diversity in 57 plots where all vertebrate groups were simultaneously sampled. At the species-level, an information-theoretic approach was used to determine the effects of landscape gradients on species’ responses. At the community level, Mantel tests were used to determine between-plot differences in species composition using the Sørensen dissimilarity index. Results We found that the occurrence patterns of most vertebrate species were best predicted by composition-related gradients, although configuration gradients were also frequently included in species-specific occurrence models. We also found a weak correlation between species richness and most landscape gradients suggesting a turnover in the identity of species, something that was corroborated by the stronger correlation between environmental gradients and beta-diversity measures. The amount of forest cover and landscape complexity (estimated as the heterogeneity in the size and number of land cover types) were the main composition and configuration gradients determining vertebrate responses at both species and community level. Main conclusions Our work contributes to a more refined understanding of the mechanisms underlying species distributional patterns in real-world human-modified landscapes. By uncovering generalities of species with multiple ecological requirements and by describing the entire landscape mosaic through landscape gradients, we also suggest that our work greatly helps to fill the gap between existing conceptual landscape models aimed to understand species distributional patterns in human-modified landscapes.

Linkages of dietary patterns, international trade and land use: the case of olive oil in the European Union

Within only two decades olive oil developed from a niche product which could hardly be found in food stores outside the producing regions towards an integrated component in the diets of industrial countries. This paper discusses the impacts of the promotion of the “healthy Mediterranean diet” on land use and agro-ecosystems in the producing countries. It examines the dynamics of olive oil production, trade and consumption in the EU15 in the period 1972 to 2003 and the links between dietary patterns, trade and land use. It analyses the underlying socio-economic driving forces behind the increasing spatial disconnect between production and consumption of olive oil in the EU15 and in particular in Spain, the world largest producer during the last three decades. In the observed period olive oil consumption increased 16 fold in the non-producing EU15 countries. In the geographically limited producing regions like Spain, the 5 fold increase in export production was associated with the rapid industrialization of olive production, the conversion of vast Mediterranean landscapes to olive monocultures and a range of environmental pressures. High amounts of subsidies of the European Common Agricultural Policy and feedback loops within production and consumption systems were driving the transformation of the olive oil system. Our analysis indicates the process of change was not immediately driven by increases in demand for olive oil in non-producing countries, but rather by the institutional setting of the European Union and by concerted political interventions.

Simulated agricultural subsistence, timing of transition, and percentage of immigrant farmers

Farming and herding were introduced to Europe from the Near East and Anatolia; there are, however, considerable arguments about the mechanisms of this transition. Were it the people who moved and either outplaced, or admixed with, the indigenous hunter-gatherer groups? Or was it material and information that moved---the Neolithic Package---consisting of domesticated plants and animals and the knowledge of their use? The latter process is commonly referred to as cultural diffusion and the former as demic diffusion. Despite continuous and partly combined efforts by archaeologists, anthropologists, linguists, palaeontologists and geneticists, a final resolution of the debate has not yet been reached. In the present contribution we interpret results from the Global Land Use and technological Evolution Simulator (GLUES). GLUES is a mathematical model for regional sociocultural development, embedded in the geoenvironmental context, during the Holocene. We demonstrate that the model is able to realistically hindcast the expansion speed and the inhomogeneous space-time evolution of the transition to agropastoralism in western Eurasia. In contrast to models that do not resolve endogenous sociocultural dynamics, our model describes and explains how and why the Neolithic advanced in stages. We uncouple the mechanisms of migration and information exchange and also of migration and the spread of agropastoralism. We find that: (1) An indigenous form of agropastoralism could well have arisen in certain Mediterranean landscapes, but not in Northern and Central Europe, where it depended on imported technology and material. (2) Both demic diffusion by migration and cultural diffusion by trade may explain the western European transition equally well. (3) Migrating farmers apparently contribute less than local adopters to the establishment of agropastoralism. Our study thus underlines the importance of adoption of introduced technologies and economies by resident foragers.

O papel das estruturas lineares, artificiais e naturais, como locais de refúgio de micromamíferos

Avaliámos a importância das bermas das estradas como áreas de refúgio para pequenos mamíferos, em paisagens Mediterrânicas intensivamente pastoreadas, e comparámos esta possível função das estradas como refúgio com o papel fundamental das galerias ripícolas como reservatórios de diversidade biológica. Para esse efeito, foram realizadas capturas de micromamíferos em dois segmentos de estrada e em duas ribeiras da região de Évora. Foram capturados 457 indivíduos de cinco espécies diferentes. Mus spretus foi a espécie mais capturada, seguida de Crocidura russula e Apodemus sylvaticus. M. spretus apresentou uma maior abundância nas bermas de estrada do que na vegetação ripicola, enquanto que a abundância de C. russula e A. sylvaticus era semelhante para ambos os habitats. O número de capturas das três espécies foi bastante superior dentro dos habitats lineares do que na matriz circundante. Os indivíduos de M. spretus eram maiores nas ribeiras, mas significativamente menores fora dos habitats lineares, e os indivíduos de C. russula apresentavam uma melhor condição corporal nas bermas das estradas. Tanto as estradas como as ribeiras exerceram um forte efeito de barreira aos movimentos dos micromamíferos. Concluímos então que as bermas das estradas actuam como habitat de refúgio em áreas sub-óptimas das paisagens Mediterrânicas. ABSTRACT: We assessed the importance of road verges as refuge areas for small mammals, in highly intensified grazed pastures on a Mediterranean landscape, and compared road function as refuge with the fundamental role of riparian galleries as reservoirs of biological diversity. For this purpose, a small mammal trapping study was undertaken on road verges and on small stream sides. We sampled two road segments and two streams in the vicinity of Évora, Portugal. We captured a total of 457 individuals of five different species. Mus spretus was the most common species captured, followed by Crocidura russula and Apodemus sylvaticus. M. spretus was more abundant on road verges than on riparian strips, whilst the abundance of C. russula and A. sylvaticus were similar in the two habitats. Captures of the three species were much higher inside both linear habitats than on the surrounding matrix. M. spretus were bigger on stream sites but significantly smaller outside the linear habitats and C. russula had better body conditions on roads. 8oth roads and streams exerted a strong barrier effect to small mammals' movements. We conclude that roadside verges act as refuge habitat in sub-optimal Mediterranean landscapes.

Schizophrenic urban reality: the changing urban landscapes of the Mediterranean region and developmental influences

This chapter considers aspects of urban design and associated identity of place that shifts over time and has to identify with aspects of economic pressures to develop as well as cultural concerns about change.

Balancing management and preservation of mediterranean scattered oak woodlands (Dehesas) in human-dominated landscapes

Los sistemas agroforestales mediterráneos tienen una gran importancia ecológica y socioeconómica, y mantienen altos valores medioambientales y de diversidad biológica a la vez que producen importantes servicios ecosistémicos. Estos sistemas han sido testigos de diversos cambios rápidos y drásticos en su gestión y aprovechamiento durante el último siglo. La mayor parte de la investigación desarrollada en esta tesis doctoral ha sido llevada a cabo en las dehesas españolas. Esta tesis nos muestra: i) la evidencia de la existencia de un cambio global del estrato arbóreo y del manejo del pastoreo en el todo el área de distribución de la dehesa durante los últimos 60 años; ii) la importancia del papel que juega el arbolado disperso y el adecuado manejo del ganado en la mejora de la producción, calidad y diversidad de las comunidades herbáceas, que a su vez, un pasto herbáceo bien desarrollado es importante para la rentabilidad del sistema, evaluando estos efectos bajo distintos escenarios de clima y calidad de estación; y iii) la evidencia de la falta de regeneración en sistemas agroforestales mediterráneos bajo distintos tipos de manejo del pastoreo, y además se evalúa el crecimiento y desarrollo de las pocas plántulas existentes que serán las que aseguren la viabilidad y persistencia y de estos sistemas. El arbolado disperso de estos sistemas ha experimentado una reducción importante en su densidad arbórea y fracción de cabida cubierta durante el periodo entre 1950-1980 donde tuvieron lugar importantes transformaciones en la actividad agropecuaria. La cabaña ganadera de ovino disminuyó drásticamente en los años 70 en comparación a la de bovino que desde entonces ha aumentado progresivamente hasta la actualidad. Por otro lado, el mismo tipo de manejo del ganado doméstico (especialmente bovino) durante bastante tiempo (mínimo 30 años) provocó una reducción significativa de la densidad de las plántulas. Además la probabilidad de ocurrencia y la intensidad de daños por herbivoría fue mayor bajo pastoreo bovino (con daños más intensos y consistentes) que bajo pastoreo ovino o sin pastoreo doméstico (presencia de ciervos). También el patrón de crecimiento de las plantas jóvenes estuvo afectado por el tipo de manejo, generando plántulas achaparradas en el caso del bovino y plántulas esbeltas favoreciendo el crecimiento en altura en el caso del ovino. La presencia de un arbolado disperso generó una mayor diversidad y variación en la producción de las comunidades herbáceas según las condiciones de disponibilidad de agua. Especialmente, el ecotono como microhábitat sostuvo altos valores de diversidad herbácea. La presencia del ganado bajo pastoreo continuo de intensidad moderada a alta, especialmente el bovino, incrementó los rendimientos de producción y diversidad del estrato herbáceo. Los resultados de esta tesis nos muestran la importancia que tiene la existencia de un equilibrio entre la producción y la conservación de los sistemas agroforestales mediterráneos para obtener una producción sostenible de servicios ecosistémicos mientras se asegura la perpetuación del sistema a largo plazo. Es crucial diseñar planes de gestión incorporando objetivos de conservación que integren técnicas silvopastorales apropiadas para poder aplicar en los sistemas agroforestales mediterráneos. ABSTRACT Mediterranean scattered oak woodlands have great ecological and socio-economic importance, supporting high environmental and amenity values, and relatively rich biological diversity while producing important ecosystem services. They have been witnesses of different and fast changes developed in the last century. Most of the research developed in this dissertation has conducted within dehesas. This thesis provides: i) the global change evidence of the tree layer and grazing management experienced in the land-use range of a Mediterranean scattered oak woodland (dehesa) over the last 60 years; ii) the important role of scattered trees and adequate management grazing in the improvement of grassland yield, quality and diversity - which it is important, in turn, for the system profitability - under different climate scenarios and site quality; and iii) the lack of oak regeneration evidence under some given representative management regimes and how is the growth development of these plants to assure the viability and persistence of Mediterranean scattered oak woodlands. Tree layer experienced a significant reduction in dehesas during 1950-1980 period where the highest human impacts took place. Sheep herd decreased drastically during the 1970s and, in contrast, cattle have been increasing gradually since then. On the other hand, same livestock grazing management (especially cattle) during long time (minimum 30 years) within Mediterranean scattered oak woodlands reduced strongly the density of young oak plants and showed high probability of herbivory occurrence and intensity. Young plant growth pattern was greatly modified by livestock. Cattle grazing generated stunted plants and sheep grazing generated slender plants favoring the height growth. Microsites created by large trees modified the herbaceous yield according the water availability of the year and generated high plant diversity within herbaceous communities. Especially, ecotone microsite supported high values of herbaceous diversity. The presence of livestock species increased the herbaceous yield and maintained a more diverse community under continuous grazing at both moderate and high intensities; especially cattle. Thus, around the influence of scattered trees there is a high amount of different interactions among livestock, trees and grasslands maintaining and enhancing the quality of whole dehesa system. The results of this thesis highlight how important is balancing management and preservation of Mediterranean scattered oak woodlands to obtain the optimum ecosystem services while the system conservation is assured for a long-term. It is crucial to design management plans with conservation goals that include appropriate silvopastoral practices in Mediterranean scattered oak woodlands.