The life-history and relationships of ‘Orthocladius’ pictipennis Freeman (Diptera: Chironomidae)

The previously unknown larva and pupa of ‘Orthocladius’ pictipennis Freeman have been found, and associated by molecular means. Pharate pupae (males within pupae) allow the link to the described adult. We describe the larva and pupa, and provide short notes on the adult. The taxon is unrelated to Orthocladius – no members of this Holarctic genus are present in New Zealand – and therefore we provide a new generic name, Paulfreemania Cranston and Krosch gen. n. as well as a short discussion of relationships amongst austral Orthocladiinae.

Temporal tracking of mineralization and transcriptional developments of shell formation during the early life history of pearl oyster Pinctada maxima

Molluscan larval ontogeny is a highly conserved process comprising three principal developmental stages. A characteristic unique to each of these stages is shell design, termed prodissoconch I, prodissoconch II and dissoconch. These shells vary in morphology, mineralogy and microstructure. The discrete temporal transitions in shell biomineralization between these larval stages are utilized in this study to investigate transcriptional involvement in several distinct biomineralization events. Scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis of P. maxima larvae and juveniles collected throughout post-embryonic ontogenesis, document the mineralogy and microstructure of each shelled stage as well as establishing a timeline for transitions in biomineralization. P. maxima larval samples most representative of these biomineralization distinctions and transitions were analyzed for differential gene expression on the microarray platform PmaxArray 1.0. A number of transcripts are reported as differentially expressed in correlation to the mineralization events of P. maxima larval ontogeny. Some of those isolated are known shell matrix genes while others are novel; these are discussed in relation to potential shell formation roles. This interdisciplinary investigation has linked the shell developments of P. maxima larval ontogeny with corresponding gene expression profiles, furthering the elucidation of shell biomineralization.

Life-history constraints in grassland plant species : a growth-defence trade-off is the norm

Plant growth can be limited by resource acquisition and defence against consumers, leading to contrasting trade-off possibilities. The competition-defence hypothesis posits a trade-off between competitive ability and defence against enemies (e.g. herbivores and pathogens). The growth-defence hypothesis suggests that strong competitors for nutrients are also defended against enemies, at a cost to growth rate. We tested these hypotheses using observations of 706 plant populations of over 500 species before and following identical fertilisation and fencing treatments at 39 grassland sites worldwide. Strong positive covariance in species responses to both treatments provided support for a growth-defence trade-off: populations that increased with the removal of nutrient limitation (poor competitors) also increased following removal of consumers. This result held globally across 4 years within plant life-history groups and within the majority of individual sites. Thus, a growth-defence trade-off appears to be the norm, and mechanisms maintaining grassland biodiversity may operate within this constraint.

The life history of Phalacrognathus Muelleri (Macleay) (Coleoptera: Lucanidae)

The life history of Phalacrognathus muelleri (Macleay) is described and aspects of its biology discussed. The species is restricted to the wet tropics of northern Queensland where it breeds in rotting wood in rainforest. Larvae have been extracted from the wood of 27 tree species in 13 families. All larvae found were in wood attacked by white rot fungi. The final instar larva is described. Larva, pupa, and parasites are figured.

Life history and host range of Alagoasa extrema (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Alticinae), a potential biological control agent of Lantana spp. (Verbenaceae) in Australia

The life history and host range of the lantana beetle, Alagoasa extrema, a potential biocontrol agent for Lantana spp. were investigated in a quarantine unit at the Alan Fletcher Research Station, Brisbane, Australia. Adults feed on leaves and females lay batches of about 17 eggs on the soil surface around the stems of plants. The eggs take 16 days to hatch and newly emerged larvae move up the stem to feed on young leaves. Larvae feed for about 23 days and there are three instars. There is a prepupal non-feeding stage that lasts about 12 days and the pupal stage, which occurs in a cocoon in the soil, lasts 16 days. Teneral adults remain in the cocoon for 3 days to harden prior to emergence. Males live for about 151 days while females live for about 127 days. The pre-oviposition period is 19 days. In no-choice larval feeding trials, nine plant species, representing three families, supported development to adult. Three species, Aloysia triphylla, Citharexylum spinosum and Pandorea pandorana were able to support at least two successive generations. These results confirm those reported in South Africa and suggest that A. extrema is not sufficiently specific for release in Australia. Furthermore, it is not recommended for release in any other country which is considering biological control of lantana.

Spatial variation in life history reveals insight into connectivity and geographic population structure of a tropical estuarine teleost: king threadfin, Polydactylus macrochir

Understanding the life history of exploited fish species is not only critical in developing stock assessments and productivity models, but has a dual function in the delineation of connectivity and geographical population structure. In this study, patterns in growth and length and age at sex change of Polydactylus macrochir, an ecologically and economically important protandrous estuarine teleost, were examined to provide preliminary information on the species' connectivity and geographic structure across northern Australia. Considerable variation in life history parameters was observed among the 18 locations sampled. Both unconstrained and constrained (t(0) = 0) estimates of von Bertalanffy growth function parameters differed significantly among all neighbouring locations with the exception of two locations in Queensland's east coast and two in Queensland's Gulf of Carpentaria waters, respectively. Comparisons of back-calculated length-at-age 2 provided additional evidence for growth differences among some locations, but were not significantly different among locations in the south-eastern Gulf of Carpentaria or on Queensland's east coast. The length and age at sex change differed markedly among locations, with fish from the east coast of Australia changing sex from males to females at significantly greater lengths and ages than elsewhere. Sex change occurred earliest at locations within Queensland's Gulf of Carpentaria, where a large proportion of small, young females were recorded. The observed differences suggest that P. macrochir likely form a number of geographically and/or reproductively distinct groups in Australian waters and suggest that future studies examining connectivity and geographic population structure of estuarine fishes will likely benefit from the inclusion of comparisons of life history parameters. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Stock structure of the blue threadfin (Eleutheronema tetradactylum) across northern Australia derived from life-history characteristics

Life history characteristics were used to determine the stock structure of the polynemid Eleutheronema tetradactylum across northern Australia. Growth, estimated from back-calculated length-at-age from sagittal otoliths, and length at sex change were estimated from samples collected from 12 different locations across western, northern and eastern Australia between 2007 and 2009. Comparison of back-calculated length-at-age, growth and length at sex change between locations revealed significant variation in the life-history characteristics of E. tetradactylum across northern Australia, with significant differences detected in 43 of 45 location comparisons. Differences in otolith size relative to fish length also existed amongst locations. No differences in other morphometric relationships were detected. The results of this study provide evidence for a high degree of spatial population subdivision for E. tetradactylum across northern Australia, the finding of which has implications for E. tetradactylum fisheries throughout its range, and provides a biological basis for spatial management of the species in Australia. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Life history of Anomalococcus indicus (Hemiptera: Lecanodiaspididae), a potential biological control agent for prickly acacia Vachellia nilotica ssp indica in Australia

Babul scale Anomalococcus indicus Ramakrishna Ayyar, a major pest of Vachellia nilotica (L.f.) P.J.H. Hurter & Mabb. on the Indian subcontinent, has been identified as a potential biocontrol agent for prickly acacia V. nilotica subsp. indica (Benth.) Kyal. & Boatwr. in Australia and was imported from southern India for detailed assessment. The life history of A. indicus under controlled glasshouse conditions was determined as a part of this assessment. Consistent with other scale species, A. indicus has a distinct sexual dimorphism which becomes apparent during the second instar. Females have three instars, developing into sexually mature nymphs after 52 days. The generation time from egg to egg was 89 days. Females are ovoviviparous, ovipositing mature eggs into a cavity underneath their body. An average of 802 +/- 114 offspring were produced per female. Reproductive output was closely associated with female size; larger females produced more than 1200 offspring. Crawlers emerged from beneath the female after an indeterminate period of inactivity. They have the only life stage at which A. indicus can disperse, though the majority settle close to their parent female forming aggregative distributions. In the absence of food, most crawlers died within three days. Males took 62 days to develop through five instars. Unlike females, males underwent complete metamorphosis. Adult males were small and winged, and lived for less than a day. Parthenogenesis was not observed in females excluded from males. The life history of A. indicus allows it to complement other biological control agents already established on prickly acacia in Australia.

Strangers in a strange land: do life history traits differ for alien and native colonisers of novel environments?

Do alien invasive species exhibit life history characteristics that are similar to those of native species that have become pests in their continent of origin? We compared eucalypt specialists that have become pests in Australian plantations (natives) to those that have established overseas (aliens) using 13 life history traits and found that although traits that support rapid population build-up were shared, overall, aliens and native colonisers differed significantly. Distance from source (New Zealand vs. other) had no significant effect, but species that established more than 50 years ago exhibited different life history traits from those that established within the last 50 years, possibly because of more effective quarantine. Native and alien eucalypt insect invaders differed predominantly in traits that facilitate long-distance movement (pathway traits), compared to traits that facilitate establishment and spread. Aliens had longer adult flight seasons, were smaller and more closely host-associated (cryptic eggs and larvae), had lower incidence of diapause (i.e. were more seasonally plastic) and more generations per year than natives. Thus, studies of species invasive within their country of origin can shed light on alien invasions.

Atypical correlation of otolith strontium : calcium and barium : calcium across a marine–freshwater life history transition of a diadromous fish

Variation in strontium (Sr) and barium (Ba) within otoliths is invaluable to studies of fish diadromy. Typically, otolith Sr : Ca is positively related to salinity, and the ratios of Ba and Sr to calcium (Ca) vary in opposite directions in relation to salinity. In this study of jungle perch, Kuhlia rupestris, otolith Sr : Ca and Ba : Ca, however, showed the same rapid increase as late-larval stages transitioned directly from a marine to freshwater environment. This transition was indicated by a microstructural check mark on otoliths at 35–45 days age. As expected ambient Sr was lower in the fresh than the marine water, however, low Ca levels (0.4 mg L–1) of the freshwater resulted in the Sr : Ca being substantially higher than the marine water. Importantly, the otolith Sr : Ba ratio showed the expected pattern of a decrease from the marine to freshwater stage, illustrating that Sr : Ba provided a more reliable inference of diadromous behaviour based on prior expectations of their relationship to salinity, than did Sr : Ca. The results demonstrate that Ca variation in freshwaters can potentially be an important influence on otolith element : Ca ratios and that inferences of marine–freshwater habitat use from otolith Sr : Ca alone can be problematic without an understanding of water chemistry.

Climate forcing on avian life history

In the 21st century, human-induced global climate change has been highlighted as one of the most serious threats to ecosystems worldwide. According to global climate scenarios, the mean temperature in Finland is expected to increase by 1.8 4.0°C by the end of the century. The regional and seasonal change in temperature has predicted to be spatially and temporally asymmetric, where the High-Arctic and Antarctic areas and winter and spring seasons have been projected to face the highest temperature increase. To understand how species respond to the ongoing climate change, we need to study how climate affects species in different phases of their life cycle. The impact of climate on breeding and migration of eight large-sized bird species was studied in this thesis, taking food availability into account. The findings show that climatic variables have considerable impact on the life-history traits of large-sized birds in northern Europe. The magnitude of climatic effects on migration and breeding was comparable with that of food supply, conventionally regarded as the main factor affecting these life-history traits. Based on the results of this thesis and the current climate scenarios, the following not mutually exclusive responses are possible in the near future. Firstly, asymmetric climate change may result in a mistiming of breeding because mild winters and early spring may lead to earlier breeding, whereas offspring are hatching into colder conditions which elevate mortality. Secondly, climate induced responses can differ between species with different breeding tactics (income vs. capital breeding), so that especially capital breeders can gain advantage on global warming as they can sustain higher energy resources. Thirdly, increasing precipitation has the potential to reduce the breeding success of many species by exposing nestlings to more severe post-hatching conditions and hampering the hunting conditions of parents. Fourthly, decreasing ice cover and earlier ice-break in the Baltic Sea will allow earlier spring migration in waterfowl. In eiders, this can potentially lead to more productive breeding. Fifthly, warming temperatures can favour parents preparing for breeding and increase nestling survival. Lastly, the climate-induced phenological changes in life history events will likely continue. Furthermore, interactions between climate and food resources can be complex and interact with each other. Eiders provide an illustrative example of this complexity, being caught in the crossfire between more benign ice conditions and lower salinity negatively affecting their prime food resource. The general conclusion is that climate is controlling not only the phenology of the species but also their reproductive output, thus affecting the entire population dynamics.

Dispersal and related life history traits in the Glanville fritillary butterfly

Most studies of life history evolution are based on the assumption that species exist at equilibrium and spatially distinct separated populations. In reality, this is rarely the case, as populations are often spatially structured with ephemeral local populations. Therefore, the characteristics of metapopulations should be considered while studying factors affecting life history evolution. Theoretical studies have examined spatial processes shaping the evolution of life history traits to some extent, but there is little empirical data and evidence to investigate model predictions. In my thesis I have tried to bridge the gap between theoretical and empirical studies by using the well-known Glanville fritillary (Melitaea cinxia) metapopulation as a model system. The long-term persistence of classic metapopulations requires sufficient dispersal to establish new local populations to compensate for local extinctions. Previous studies on the Glanville fritillary have shown that females establishing new populations are not a random sample from the metapopulation, but they are in fact more dispersive than females in old populations. Many other life-history traits, such as body size, fecundity and lifespan, may be related to dispersal rate. Therefore, I examined a range of correlated traits for their evolutionary and ecological consequences. I was particularly interested in how the traits vary under natural environmental conditions, hence all studies were conducted in a large (32 x 26 m) outdoor population cage built upon a natural habitat patch. Individuals for the experiments were sampled from newly-established and old populations within a large metapopulation. Results show that females originating from newly-established populations had higher within-habitat patch mobility than females from old populations. I showed that dispersal rate is heritable and that flight activity is related to variation in a gene encoding the glycolytic enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase. Both among-individual and among-population variation in dispersal are correlated with the reproductive performance of females, though I found no evidence for a trade-off between dispersal and fecundity in terms of lifetime egg production or clutch size. Instead, the results suggest that highly dispersive females from newly-established populations have a shorter lifespan than females from old populations, and that dispersive females may pay a cost in terms of reduced lifetime reproductive success due to increased time spent outside habitat patches. In summary, the results of this thesis show that genotype-dependent dispersal rate correlates with other life history traits in the Glanville fritillary, and that the rapid turnover of local populations (extinctions and re-colonisations) is likely to be the mechanism that maintains phenotypic variation in many life history traits at the metapopulation level.

Comparative life-history traits in a fig wasp community: implications for community structure

1. Whether life-history traits can determine community composition and structure is an important question that has been well explored theoretically, but has received scant empirical attention. Life-history traits of a seven-member community of galler and parasitoid fig wasp species (Chalcidoidea), developing within the inflorescences (syconia) of Ficus racemosa (Moraceae) in India, were determined and used to examine community structure and ecology. 2. Gallers were pro-ovigenic (all eggs are mature upon adult emergence) whereas parasitoids were synovigenic (eggs mature progressively during adult lifespan). Initial egg load was correlated with body size for some species, and there was a trade-off between egg number and egg size across all species. Although all species completed their development and left the syconium concurrently, they differed in their adult and pre-adult lifespans. Providing sucrose solutions increased parasitoid lifespan but had no effect on the longevity of some galler species. While feeding regimes and body size affected longevity in most species, an interaction effect between these variables was detected for only one species. 3. Life-history traits of wasp species exhibited a continuum in relation to their arrival sequence at syconia for oviposition during syconium development, and therefore reflected their ecology. The largest number of eggs, smallest egg sizes, and shortest longevities were characteristic of the earliest-arriving galling wasps at the smallest, immature syconia; the converse characterised the later-arriving parasitoids at the larger, already parasitised syconia. Thus life history is an important correlate of community resource partitioning and can be used to understand community structure. 4. This is the first comprehensive study of life-history traits in a fig wasp community. The comparative approach revealed constraints and flexibility in trait evolution.

Life-history of Neurospora intermedia in a sugar cane field

The life-history of Neurospora in nature has remained largely unknown. The present study attempts to remedy this. The following conclusions are based on observation of Neurospora on fire-scorched sugar cane in agricultural fields, and reconstruction experiments using a colour mutant to inoculate sugar cane burned in the laboratory. The fungus persists in soil as heat-resistant dormant ascospores. These are activated by a chemical(s) released into soil from the burnt substrate. The chief diffusible activator of ascospores is furfural and the germinating ascospores infect the scorched substrate. An invasive mycelium grows progressively upwards inside the juicy sugar cane and produces copious macroconidia externally through fire-induced openings formed in the plant tissue, or by the mechanical rupturing of the plant epidermal tissue by the mass of mycelium. The loose conidia are dispersed by wind and/or foraged by microfauna. It is suggested that the constant production of macroconidia, and their ready dispersal, serve a physiological role: to drain the substrate of minerals and soluble sugars, thereby creating nutritional conditions which stimulate sexual reproduction by the fungus. Sexual reproduction in the sugar-depleted cellulosic substrate occurs after macroconidiation has ceased totally and is favoured by the humid conditions prevailing during the monsoon rains. Profuse microconidiophores and protoperithecia are produced simultaneously in the pockets below the loosened epidermal tissue. Presumably protoperithecia are fertilized by microconidia which are possibly transmitted by nematodes active in the dead plant tissue. Mature perithecia release ascospores in situ which are passively liberated in the soil by the disintegration of the plant material and are, apparently, distributed by rain or irrigation water.