A novel A2 allele found in Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum chagasi

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a widely spread zoonotic disease. In Brazil the disease is caused by Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum chagasi. Peridomestic sandflies acquire the etiological agent by feeding on blood of infected reservoir animals, such as dogs or wildlife. The disease is endemic in Brazil and epidemic foci have been reported in densely populated cities all over the country. Many clinical features of Leishmania infection are related to the host-parasite relationship, and many candidate virulence factors in parasites that cause VL have been studied such as A2 genes. The A2 gene was first isolated in 1994 and then in 2005 three new alleles were described in Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum. In the present study we amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequenced the A2 gene from the genome of a clonal population of L. (L.) infantum chagasi VL parasites. The L. (L.) infantum chagasi A2 gene was amplified, cloned, and sequenced in. The amplified fragment showed approximately 90% similarity with another A2 allele amplified in Leishmania (Leishmania) donovani and in L.(L.) infantum described in literature. However, nucleotide translation shows differences in protein amino acid sequence, which may be essential to determine the variability of A2 genes in the species of the L. (L.) donovani complex and represents an additional tool to help understanding the role this gene family may have in establishing virulence and immunity in visceral leishmaniasis. This knowledge is important for the development of more accurate diagnostic tests and effective tools for disease control.

Presence of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum and Leishmania infantum in dogs from Piauí

This study aimed to evaluate the presence of antibodies against Neospora caninum, Toxoplasma gondii and Leishmania infantum in dogs attended at the Veterinary Hospital of the Federal University of Piauí, Northeastern Brazil, where there are no reports of the occurrence of N. caninum and T. gondii in dogs. Serum samples from 530 dogs of genders, different ages and breeds from the municipality of Teresina and nearby towns were analyzed using three indirect fluorescent antibody tests, each one targeting one of the three agents. The associations between the parasites and gender, breed and age of the dogs were assessed by the chi-square test (p > 0.05). The occurrence of antibodies to N. caninum, T. gondii and L. infantum was 3.2, 18.0 and 78.1%, respectively. Toxoplasma gondii was more frequently found in older dogs (p < 0.05) whereas L. infantum was more common in animals aged between 1 to 3 years (p < 0.05). In order to evaluate potential associations between the presence of anti-N. caninum and anti-T. gondii antibodies and Leishmania infection, 240 dogs were selected (120 positive and 120 negative for Leishmania spp.), based on serological and parasitological diagnoses. No association was found between Leishmania spp. and the coccidian parasites (p > 0.05). The results confirm the exposure of dogs to these parasites in the State of Piauí.

PREVALENCE OF ANTIBODIES TO TRYPANOSOMA CRUZI, LEISHMANIA INFANTUM, ENCEPHALITOZOON CUNICULI, SARCOCYSTIS NEURONA, AND NEOSPORA CANINUM IN CAPYBARA, HYDROCHOERUS HYDROCHAERIS, FROM SAO PAULO STATE, BRAZIL

Little is known about the importance of capybara. Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, as reservoirs for parasites of zoonotic or veterinary importance. Sera from 63 capybaras, from 6 counties in the state of Sao Paulo, Brazil, were examined for antibodies to Trypanosoma cruel, Leishmania infantum, Encephalitozoon cuniculi. Sarcacystis neurona, and Neospora caninum using an indirect immunofluorescent antibody test. Five (8%) of the 63 capybaras had antibodies to T cruzi epimastigotes. None of the samples from capybara reacted positively with L. infantum promastigotes or with spores of E. cuniculi. Two (3%) of the serum samples were positive for antibodies to S. neurona merozoites, and 2 (3%) of the serum samples were positive for antibodies to N. caninum tachyzoites. A serum sample from 1 capybara was positive for antibodies to both T cruzi and N. caninum. None of the remaining 62 samples reacted with more than 1 parasite.

In vitro effect of Aloe vera, Coriandrum sativum and Ricinus communis fractions on Leishmania infantum and on murine monocytic cells

In South America, visceral leishmaniasis is a zoonosis caused by the protozoan species Leishmania infantum (syn. L. chagasi) and is primarily transmitted through the bite of the female Lutzomyia longipalpis. Its main reservoir in urban areas is the dog. The application of control measures recommended by health agencies have not achieved significant results in reducing the incidence of human cases, and the lack of effective drugs to treat dogs resulted in the prohibition of this course of action in Brazil. Therefore, it is necessary to search new alternatives for the treatment of canine and human visceral leishmaniasis. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the in vitro effect of fractions from Aloe vera (aloe), Coriandrum sativum (coriander), and Ricinus communis (castor) on promastigotes and amastigotes of L. infantum and to analyze the toxicity against the murine monocytic cells RAW 264.7. To determine the viability of these substances on 50% parasites (IC50), we used a tetrazolium dye (MU) colorimetric assay (bromide 3-4.5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl-2,5-dephenyltetrazolium), and on amastigotes we performed an in situ ELISA. All fractions were effective against L. infantum promastigotes and did not differ from the positive control pentamidine (p > 0.05). However, the R. communis ethyl acetate and chloroform fractions, as well as the C. sativum methanol fraction, were the most effective against amastigotes and did not differ from the positive control amphotericin B (p > 0.05). The R. communis ethyl acetate fraction was the least toxic, presenting 83.5% viability of RAW 264.7 cells, which was similar to the results obtained with amphotericin B (p > 0.05). Based on these results, we intend to undertake in vivo studies with R. communis ethyl acetate fractions due the high effectiveness against amastigotes and promastigotes of L. infantum and the low cytotoxicity towards murine monocytic cells. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A longitudinal study on the transmission dynamics of human Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum chagasi infection in Amazonian Brazil, with special reference to its prevalence and incidence

This was a longitudinal study carried out during a period over 2 years with a cohort of 946 individuals of both sexes, aged 1 year and older, from an endemic area of American visceral leishmaniasis (AVL) in Para State, Brazil. The object was to analyze the transmission dynamics of human Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum chagasi infection based principally on the prevalence and incidence. For diagnosis of the infection, the indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) and leishmanin skin test (LST) were performed with amastigote and promastigote antigens of the parasite, respectively. The prevalence by LST (11.2%) was higher (p < 0.0001) than that (3.4%) by IFAT, and the combined prevalence by both tests was 12.6%. The incidences by LST were also higher (p < 0.05) than those by IFAT at 6 (4.7% A- 0.6%), 12 (4.7% A- 2.7%), and 24 months (2.9% A- 0.3%). Moreover, there were no differences (p > 0.05) between the combined incidences by both tests on the same point surveys, 5.2%, 6.3%, and 3.6%. During the study, 12 infected persons showed high IFAT IgG titers with no LST reactions: five children and two adults developed AVL (2,560-10,120), and two children and three adults developed subclinical oligosymptomatic infection (1,280-2,560). The combined tests diagnosed a total of 231 cases of infection leading to an accumulated prevalence of 24.4%.

Transovarial passage of Leishmania infantum kDNA in artificially infected Rhipicephalus sanguineus

Phlebotomine sand flies are the only proven biological vectors of Leishmania parasites. However, Rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks have long been suspected to transmit Leishmania infantum in studies carried out in laboratory and natural conditions. In the present study, 5 mu l of L. infantum promastigotes (1 x 10(6) cells per ml) was injected into the hemocel through the coxa 1 of four engorged females (F1, F2, F3 and F4). Control ticks (F5 and F6) were injected with sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) using the same procedure. Then, these females, their eggs, and the originated larvae were tested by real time polymerase chain reaction (real-time PCR) for the presence of L. infantum kinetoplast DNA (kDNA). Females and eggs were tested after the end of the oviposition period (about 5 weeks post-inoculation) whereas larvae were tested about 4 months after the inoculation of females. All artificially infected females were positive for L. infantum kDNA. In addition, two pools of eggs (one from F2 and other from F4) and four pools of larvae (one from each F1 and F4 and two from F2) were positive for L infantum kDNA. These results showed, for the first time, the transovarial passage of L. infantum kDNA in R. sanguineus ticks, thus suggesting that the transovarial transmission of L. infantum protozoa in ticks is worth to be investigated. (C) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Resposta imune na infecção por Leishmania infantum em modelo murino

As leishmanioses são doenças causadas por protozoários do género Leishmania que são parasitas intracelulares obrigatórios das células fagocíticas. O objectivo deste estudo foi caracterizar a infecção por Leishmania infantum em murganhos BALB/c inoculados por via intradérmica, analisando a evolução do parasitismo e as respostas imunitárias desenvolvidas. A carga parasitária foi determinada por PCR em tempo real. Foram detectados parasitas desde o 7º dia pós-infecção, verificando-se a disseminação visceral do parasita ao 56º dia pós-infecção. Os linfócitos dos animais do grupo infectado proliferaram em resposta à estimulação antigénica, enquanto que os macrófagos peritoneais produziram nitritos na presença do antigénio. Estes resultados demonstraram que os murganhos BALB/c inoculados por via intradérmica constituem um bom modelo experimental de leishmaniose visceral.

Interacção Parasita-Hospedeiro e susceptibilidade de Leishmania infantum a fármacos

RESUMO As leishmanioses são doenças causadas por um protozoário intracelular pertencente à ordem Kinetoplastida, da família Trypanosomatidae, do género Leishmania. Os parasitas são transmitidos aos hospedeiros vertebrados por dípteros pertencentes à sub-família Phlebotominae. Devido à inexistência de vacinas a quimioterapêutica continua a representar o único mecanismo de prevenção e controlo. Os fármacos de primeira linha para o tratamento da leishmaniose visceral continuam a ser os antimoniais pentavalentes e a anfotericina B (AMB). A AMB lipossómica está a ser cada vez mais utilizada como 1ª linha. O conhecimento do(s) mecanismo(s) utilizados pelos parasitas, responsáveis pela resistência, é fundamental de modo a permitir o desenvolvimento de novos fármacos anti-Leishmania que possam substituir e/ou complementar os fármacos existentes, de uma forma eficaz assim como contribuir para o desenvolvimento de metodologias para avaliar e monitorizar a resistência. Espera-se do modelo animal a reprodução da infecção na Natureza. Os modelos canino e murino têm ajudado na compreensão dos mecanismos responsáveis pela patogénese e pela resposta imunitária à infecção por Leishmania. Sendo o cão o principal hospedeiro da infecção por L. infantum e o principal reservatório doméstico da leishmaniose visceral humana, procedeu-se à caracterização da evolução da infecção experimental em canídeos de raça Beagle através da análise clínica, hematológica, histopatológica, parasitária, assim com através da resposta imunitária desenvolvida. As alterações hematológicas observadas foram as associadas à leishmaniose visceral: anemia, leucopenia, trombocitopenia com aumento das proteínas totais e da fracção gama-globulina, e diminuição da albumina. Histologicamente observou-se nos órgãos viscerais uma reacção inflamatória crónica, acompanhada por vezes da formação de granulomas ricos em macrófagos. Apesar de todos os animais terem ficado infectados (confirmado pela presença do parasita nos vários tecidos e órgãos recolhidos na necrópsia), os únicos sinais clínicos observados transitoriamente foram adenopatia e alopécia. As técnicas moleculares foram significativamente mais eficazes na detecção do parasita do que os métodos parasitológicos convencionais. As amostras não invasivas (sangue periférico e conjuntiva) mostraram ser significativamente menos eficazes na detecção de leishmanias. No nosso modelo experimental não se observou a supressão da resposta celular ao antigénio parasitário e confirmou-se que, apesar de não protectora, a resposta humoral específica é pronunciada e precoce. A bipolarização da resposta imunitária Th1 ou Th2, amplamente descrita nas infecções experimentais por L. major no modelo murino, não foram observadas neste estudo. O facto dos animais não evidenciarem doença apesar do elevado parasitismo nos órgãos viscerais poderá estar relacionado com a expressão simultânea de citocinas de ambos os tipos Th1 e Treg, no baço, fígado, gânglio, medula óssea e sangue periférico. Neste estudo também se caracterizou o efeito da saliva do vector Phlebotomus perniciosus na infecção experimental de murganhos BALB/c com estirpes de L. infantum selvagem e tratada com AMB, inoculadas por via intradérmica. A visceralização da infecção ocorreu após a utilização da via de administração do inóculo que mais se assemelha ao que ocorre na Natureza. Apesar da disseminação dos parasitas nos animais co-inoculados com extracto de uma glândula salivar ter sido anterior à do grupo inoculado apenas com parasitas, não se detectaram diferenças significativas na carga parasitária, entre os três grupos, ao longo do período de observação pelo que, embora a saliva do vector esteja descrita como responsável pela exacerbação da infecção, tal não foi observado no nosso estudo. O aumento de expressão de citocinas esteve relacionado com o aumento do parasitismo mas, tal como no modelo canino, não se observou bipolarização da resposta imunitária. Os animais dos três grupos infectados parecem ter desenvolvido nos diferentes órgãos uma resposta mista dos tipos Th1 e Th2/Treg. Contudo, verificou-se a predominância da expressão Th1 (TNF-α), no fim do período de observação, o que pode estar relacionado com a resolução da infecção. Por outro lado, a presença de parasitas na pele dos animais inoculados com a estirpe L. infantum tratada com AMB permite colocar a hipótese da existência de parasitas resistentes na Natureza e destes poderem ser transmitidos. Após se ter verificado que a estirpe de L. infantum tratada com AMB tinha a capacidade de infectar e visceralizar no modelo murino, analisou-se o seu comportamento em dois dos principais vectores de L. infantum, Lutzomyia longipalpis e P. perniciosus. Os parasitas tratados com AMB apresentaram uma menor capacidade de permanecerem no interior do vector assim como um desenvolvimento mais lento apontando para uma menor capacidade de transmissão das estirpes resistentes a este fármaco, pelo que o tratamento com AMB poderá ser favorável à prevenção e controlo através da interrupção do ciclo de vida do parasita. De modo a determinar in vitro a susceptibilidade de Leishmania aos diferentes fármacos utilizados na terapêutica da leishmaniose humana e canina (Glucantime®, Fungizone®, miltefosine e alopurinol) comparou-se o sistema de promastigotas axénicos com o sistema amatigota-macrófago. Verificou-se que, para as estirpes estudadas, os resultados de ambos os sistemas não apresentavam diferenças significativas sendo a utilização do primeiro mais vantajosa ao ser menos moroso e de mais fácil execução. Seleccionaram-se estirpes quimio-resistentes in vitro, por exposição prolongada a doses crescentes de AMB, tendo-se verificado que os parasitas tratados, apresentaram uma menor susceptibilidade do que os não tratados à acção dos fármacos estudados, com excepção do alopurinol. A diminuição da susceptibilidade das estirpes aos fármacos utilizados poderá facilitar a dispersão de parasitas multiresistentes. Sendo a apoptose um dos mecanismos utilizados pelos parasitas para evitar a indução de uma resposta imune por acção de compostos anti- Leishmania, determinou-se o número de amastigotas apoptóticos assim como a produção de TNF-α e IL-10 pelos macrófagos tratados. Concluiu-se que os compostos conseguiram suprimir a produção de IL-10, inibidora da activação dos macrófagos, contudo nem a produção da citocina pro-inflamatória TNF- α nem a apoptose pareceram ser os principais mecanismos responsáveis à sobrevivência dos parasitas ao contacto com os fármacos.

Investigation of trypanothione synthetase of Leishmania infantum as a potential target for new anti-parasitic drugs

Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de Mestre em Biotecnologia

Leishmaniose Cutânea Causada por Leishmania Infantum Zimodeme Mon-1 em Portugal

Leishmania infantum zimodeme MON-1 foi isolado a partir de uma lesão cutânea da face de uma criança, residente em Lisboa e que nunca saíu do país. Após biópsia excisional não houve recorrência da lesão. Este é o primeiro caso em que este agente é identificado como responsável pela leishmaniose cutãnea em Portugal.

Reproduction of Leishmania (Leishmania ) infantum chagasi in conditioned cell culture growth medium

Leishmanias can be produced by inoculation in conditioned McCoy cell culture growth medium (CGM). Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum chagasi (100 parasites) grown in NNN medium was inoculated in 2.5 mL CGM, kept in plates (24 wells) and its multiplication was observed for five days (120 hours). After day 5, the medium was saturated with the flagellate forms of the parasite (promastigotes). The reproduction of the leishmanias was observed every 24 hours and the number of parasites was calculated by counting the parasites in a drop of 10 µ L and photomicrographied. So the number of Leishmanias was adjusted to 1 mL volume. The advantage of the technique by isolation of Leishmania in CGM demonstrated in this study is its low cost and high efficacy even with a small quantity of parasites (10² promastigotes) used as inoculum. Additionally, isolation of the leishmania can be obtained together with an increase in their density (180 times) as observed by growth kinetics, within a shorter time. These results justify the use of this low-cost technique for the isolation and investigation of the behavior and multiplication of Leishmania both in vertebrates and invertebrates, besides offering means of obtaining antigens, whether whole antigens (leishmanias) or the soluble antigens produced by the parasites which may be useful for the production of new diagnostic kits.

First occurrence of an autochthonous canine case of Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum chagasi in the municipality of Campinas, State of São Paulo, Brazil

An autochthonous case of visceral leishmaniasis is reported in a dog (Canis familiaris) as an apparently natural infection in a non-endemic area. DNA obtained from spleen and liver samples produced the expected fragment in a Leishmania-specific rDNA-based nested-PCR assay. The PCR product, a 490 bp fragment, was sequenced and the nucleotide sequence was identical to that of Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum chagasi. These results are surprising since no autochthonous human or canine cases of visceral leishmaniasis have ever been reported in this municipality. This case suggests that natural transmission of this disease is occurring in this area.

THE SERO-CONVERSION AND EVALUATION OF RENAL ALTERATIONS IN DOGS INFECTED BY Leishmania (Infantum) chagasi

This study investigated the sero-conversion period in which dogs from endemic areas test positive for visceral leishmaniasis (VL) as well as the early post-infection period in which renal alterations are observed. Dogs that were initially negative for Canine Visceral Leishmaniasis (CVL) were clinically evaluated every three months by serological, parasitological and biochemical tests until sero-conversion was confirmed, and six months later a subsequent evaluation was performed. Samples of kidney tissues were processed and stained with Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E), Periodic Acid Schiff (PAS) and Masson’s trichrome stain and lesions were classified based on the WHO criteria. Of the 40 dogs that initially tested negative for VL, 25 (62.5%) exhibited positive serological tests during the study period. Of these 25 dogs, 15 (60%) tested positive within three months, five (20%) tested positive within six months and five (20%) tested positive within nine months. The dogs exhibited antibody titers between 1:40 and 1:80 and 72% of the dogs exhibited clinical symptoms. The Leishmania antigen was present in the kidneys of recently infected dogs. We found higher levels of total protein and globulin as well as lower levels of albumin in the infected dogs when compared to the control dogs. Additionally, infected dogs presented levels of urea and creatinine that were higher than those of the uninfected dogs. Glomerulonephritis was detected in some of the dogs examined in this study. These data suggest that in Teresina, the sero-conversion for VL occurs quickly and showed that the infected dogs presented abnormal serum proteins, as well as structural and functional alterations in the kidneys during the early post-infection period.

DISTINCT CELLULAR MIGRATION INDUCED BY Leishmania infantum chagasi AND SALIVA FROM Lutzomyia longipalpis IN A HEMORRHAGIC POOL MODEL

Recruitment of a specific cell population after Leishmania infection can influence the outcome of the disease. Cellular migration in response to Leishmania or vector saliva has been reported in air pouch model, however, cellular migration induced by Leishmania associated with host's blood and vector saliva in this model has not been described. Herein we investigated cellular migration into air pouch of hamster after stimulation with combination of L. chagasi and host's blood and Lutzomyia longipalpis saliva. Migration induced by saliva was 3-fold more than those induced by L. chagasi alone. Additionally, L. chagasi associated with blood and saliva induced significantly even more leukocytes into air pouch than Leishmania alone. L. chagasi recruited a diverse cell population; however, most of these cells seem to have not migrated to the inflammatory exudate, remaining in the pouch lining tissue. These results indicate that L. chagasi can reduce leukocyte accumulation to the initial site of infection, and when associated with vector saliva in the presence of blood components, increase the influx of more neutrophils than macrophages, suggesting that the parasite has developed a strategy to minimize the initial inflammatory response, allowing an unlimited progression within the host. This work reinforces the importance of studies on the salivary components of sand fly vectors of leishmaniasis in the transmission process and the establishment of the infection.

EVIDENCE OF Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum INFECTION IN DOGS FROM JUIZ DE FORA, MINAS GERAIS STATE, BRAZIL, BASED ON IMMUNOCHROMATOGRAPHIC DUAL-PATH PLATFORM (DPP®) AND PCR ASSAYS

In Brazil, domestic dogs are branded as the primary reservoir for zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis, due to the clear positive correlation observed between human and canine infection rates. This study aimed to carry out a serological survey of canine visceral leishmaniasis (CVL) in dogs housed at a public kennel in the municipality of Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais State, Brazil, using the immunochromatographic TR DPP® CVL rapid test. Additionally, conventional and/or real time PCR assay was used to detect and confirm L. infantum infection in the DPP positive dogs only. Of the 400 dogs studied, most did not present clinical signs for CVL (p < 0.05), and fifteen (3.8%) were seropositive in the DPP test. There was no statistically significant difference between the DPP seropositive dogs and the clinical signs of the disease (p > 0.05). Both conventional and real time PCR tests confirmed L. infantum infection in nine (75.0%) of the twelve DPP seropositive dogs that remained alive during the follow-up period. This study is the first seroepidemiologic survey of CVL held in the city of Juiz de Fora, and the results reinforce the idea that this disease is currently in a process of expansion and urbanization in Brazil. Furthermore, this study highlights the use of the DPP test as an alternative for diagnosing CVL in large and mid-sized cities, due to its ease of implementation.