Numerical prediction of delamination onset in carbon/epoxy composites drilling

Despite the fact that their physical properties make them an attractive family of materials, composites machining can cause several damage modes such as delamination, fibre pull-out, thermal degradation, and others. Minimization of axial thrust force during drilling reduces the probability of delamination onset, as it has been demonstrated by analytical models based on linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM). A finite element model considering solid elements of the ABAQUS® software library and interface elements including a cohesive damage model was developed in order to simulate thrust forces and delamination onset during drilling. Thrust force results for delamination onset are compared with existing analytical models.

Estudo da delaminação em compósitos

As excelentes propriedades mecânicas, associadas ao seu baixo peso, fazem com que os materiais compósitos sejam atualmente dos mais interessantes da nossa sociedade tecnológica. A crescente utilização destes materiais e a excelência dos resultados daí provenientes faz com que estes materiais sejam utilizados em estruturas complexas de responsabilidade, pelo que a sua maquinagem se torna necessária de forma a possibilitar a ligação entre peças. O processo de furação é o mais frequente. O processo de maquinagem de compósitos terá como base os métodos convencionais utilizados nos materiais metálicos. O processo deverá, no entanto, ser convenientemente adaptado, quer a nível de parâmetros, quer a nível de ferramentas a utilizar. As características dos materiais compósitos são bastante particulares pelo que, quando são sujeitos a maquinagem poderão apresentar defeitos tais como delaminação, fissuras intralaminares, arrancamento de fibras ou dano por sobreaquecimento. Para a detecção destes danos, por vezes a inspeção visual não é suficiente, sendo necessário recorrer a processos específicos de análise de danos. Existem já, alguns estudos, cujo âmbito foi a obtenção de furos de qualidade em compósitos, com minimização do dano, não se podendo comparar ainda com a informação existente, no que se refere à maquinagem de materiais metálicos ou ligas metálicas. Desta forma, existe ainda um longo caminho a percorrer, de forma a que o grau de confiança na utilização destes materiais se aproxime aos materiais metálicos. Este trabalho experimental desenvolvido nesta tese assentou essencialmente na furação de placas laminadas e posterior análise dos danos provocados por esta operação. Foi dada especial atenção à medição da delaminação causada pela furação e à resistência mecânica do material após ser maquinado. Os materiais utilizados, para desenvolver este trabalho experimental, foram placas compósitas de carbono/epóxido com duas orientações de fibras diferentes: unidireccionais e em “cross-ply”. Não se conseguiu muita informação, junto do fornecedor, das suas características pelo que se levaram a cabo ensaios que permitiram determinar o seu módulo de elasticidade. Relativamente á sua resistência â tração, como já foi referido, a grande resistência oferecida pelo material, associada às limitações da máquina de ensaios não permitiu chegar a valores conclusivos. Foram usadas três geometrias de ferramenta diferentes: helicoidal, Brad e Step. Os materiais utilizados nas ferramentas, foram o aço rápido (HSS) e o carboneto de tungsténio para as brocas helicoidais de 118º de ângulo de ponta e apenas o carboneto de tungsténio para as brocas Brad e Step. As ferramentas em diamante não foram consideradas neste trabalho, pois, embora sejam reconhecidas as suas boas características para a maquinagem de compósitos, o seu elevado custo não justifica a sua escolha, pelo menos num trabalho académico, como é o caso. As vantagens e desvantagens de cada geometria ou material utilizado foram avaliadas, tanto no que diz respeito à delaminação como á resistência mecânica dos provetes ensaiados. Para a determinação dos valores de delaminação, foi usada a técnica de Raio X. Algum conhecimento já existente relativamente a este processo permitiu definir alguns parâmetros (por exemplo: tempo de exposição das placas ao liquido contrastante), que tornaram acessível o procedimento de obtenção de imagens das placas furadas. Importando estas imagens para um software de desenho (no caso – AutoCad), foi possível medir as áreas delaminadas e chegar a valores para o fator de delaminação de cada furo efetuado. Terminado este processo, todas as placas foram sujeitas a ensaios de esmagamento, de forma a avaliar a forma como os parâmetros de maquinagem afectaram a resistência mecânica do material. De forma resumida, são objetivos deste trabalho: - Caracterizar as condições de corte em materiais compósitos, mais especificamente em fibras de carbono reforçado com matriz epóxida (PRFC); - Caracterização dos danos típicos provocados pela furação destes materiais; - Desenvolvimento de análise não destrutiva (RX) para avaliação dos danos provocados pela furação; - Conhecer modelos existentes com base na mecânica da fratura linear elástica (LEFM); - Definição de conjunto de parâmetros ideais de maquinagem com o fim de minimizar os danos resultantes da mesma, tendo em conta os resultados provenientes dos ensaios de força, da análise não destrutiva e da comparação com modelos de danos existentes e conhecidos.

Statistical variation of weld profiles and their expected influence on fatigue strength

The general objective of this study was to conduct astatistical analysis on the variation of the weld profiles and their influence on the fatigue strength of the joint. Weld quality with respect to its fatigue strength is of importance which is the main concept behind this thesis. The intention of this study was to establish the influence of weld geometric parameters on the weld quality and fatigue strength. The effect of local geometrical variations of non-load carrying cruciform fillet welded joint under tensile loading wasstudied in this thesis work. Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics was used to calculate fatigue strength of the cruciform fillet welded joints in as-welded condition and under cyclic tensile loading, for a range of weld geometries. With extreme value statistical analysis and LEFM, an attempt was made to relate the variation of the cruciform weld profiles such as weld angle and weld toe radius to respective FAT classes.

Fatigue Analysis of Welded Cruciform Joints with Cold Laps

Työssä on tutkittu vetojännityskuormituksen alaisena olevien hitsattujen kuormaa kantamattomien X-liitosten hitsin paikallisen geometrian variaation vaikutusta väsymislujuuteen. Muuttujina olivat reunan pyöristyssäde, kylmäjuoksun suuruus ja kylkikulma. Geometristen muuttujien parametrinen riippuvuussuhde on analysoitu usealla elementtimallilla. Väsymistarkastelu on suoritettu käyttämällä lineaaris-elastista murtumismekaniikkaa (LEFM) tasovenymätilassa ja materiaalina terästä. Särönkasvun suunnan ennustamisessaon käytetty maksimipääjännityskriteeriä sekä jännitysintensiteettikertoimet on määritetty J-integraalilla. Särön ydintymisvaihetta ei ole otettu huomioon. Rakenteen on oletettu olevan hitsatussa tilassa ja jännitysheilahdus on kokonaan tehollinen. Särön kasvunopeuden ennustamiseen on käytetty Paris'n lakia. Väsymislujuustulokset on esitetty karakteristisina väsymisluokkina (FAT) ja sovitettu parametriseksi yhtälöksi. Lopuksi väsymisanalyysin ennustamia tuloksia on verrattu saatavilla oleviin väsytystestituloksiin.

An Assessment ofFatigue Strength of Load Carrying Welded Joints with Lack of Penetration

On yleisesti tiedossa, että väsyttävän kuormituksen alaisena olevat hitsatut rakenteet rikkoutuvat juuri hitsausliitoksista. Täyden tunkeuman hitsausliitoksia sisältävien rakenteiden asiantunteva suunnittelu janykyaikaiset valmistusmenetelmät ovat lähes eliminoineet väsymisvauriot hitsatuissa rakenteissa. Väsymislujuuden parantaminen tiukalla täyden tunkeuman vaatimuksella on kuitenkin epätaloudellinen ratkaisu. Täyden tunkeuman hitsausliitoksille asetettavien laatuvaatimuksien on määriteltävä selkeät tarkastusohjeet ja hylkäämisperusteet. Tämän diplomityön tarkoituksena oli tutkia geometristen muuttujien vaikutusta kuormaa kantavien hitsausliitosten väsymislujuuteen. Huomio kiinnitettiin pääasiassa suunnittelumuuttujiin, joilla on vaikutusta väsymisvaurioiden syntymiseen hitsauksen juuren puolella. Nykyiset määräykset ja standardit, jotka perustuvat kokeellisiin tuloksiin; antavat melko yleisiä ohjeita hitsausliitosten väsymismitoituksesta. Tämän vuoksi muodostettiin kokonaan uudet parametriset yhtälöt sallitun nimellisen jännityksen kynnysarvon vaihteluvälin, ¿¿th, laskemiseksi, jotta vältettäisiin hitsausliitosten juuren puoleiset väsymisvauriot. Lisäksi, jokaiselle liitostyypille laskettiin hitsin juuren puolen väsymisluokat (FAT), joita verrattiin olemassa olevilla mitoitusohjeilla saavutettuihin tuloksiin. Täydentäviksi referensseiksi suoritettiin useita kolmiulotteisia (3D) analyysejä. Julkaistuja kokeellisiin tuloksiin perustuvia tietoja käytettiin apuna hitsausliitosten väsymiskäyttäytymisen ymmärtämiseksi ja materiaalivakioiden määrittämiseksi. Kuormaa kantavien vajaatunkeumaisten hitsausliitosten väsymislujuus määritettiin käyttämällä elementtimenetelmää. Suurimman pääjännityksen kriteeriä hyödynnettiin murtumiskäyttäytymisen ennakoimiseksi. Valitulle hitsatulle materiaalille ja koeolosuhteille murtumiskäyttäytymistä mallinnettiin särön kasvunopeudella da/dN ja jännitysintensiteettikertoimen vaihteluvälillä, 'K. Paris:n yhtälön numeerinen integrointi suoritettiin FRANC2D/L tietokoneohjelmalla. Saatujen tulosten perusteella voidaan laskea FAT tutkittavassa tapauksessa. ¿¿th laskettiin alkusärön jännitysintensiteettikertoimen vaihteluvälin ja kynnysjännitysintensiteettikertoimen, 'Kth, perusteella. ¿Kth arvoa pienemmällä vaihteluvälillä särö ei kasva. Analyyseissäoletuksena oli hitsattu jälkikäsittelemätön liitos, jossa oli valmis alkusärö hitsin juuressa. Analyysien tulokset ovat hyödyllisiä suunnittelijoille, jotka tekevät päätöksiä koskien geometrisiä parametreja, joilla on vaikutusta hitsausliitosten väsymislujuuteen.

A modified structural stress method for fatigue assessment of welded structures

Fatigue life assessment of weldedstructures is commonly based on the nominal stress method, but more flexible and accurate methods have been introduced. In general, the assessment accuracy is improved as more localized information about the weld is incorporated. The structural hot spot stress method includes the influence of macro geometric effects and structural discontinuities on the design stress but excludes the local features of the weld. In this thesis, the limitations of the structural hot spot stress method are discussed and a modified structural stress method with improved accuracy is developed and verified for selected welded details. The fatigue life of structures in the as-welded state consists mainly of crack growth from pre-existing cracks or defects. Crack growth rate depends on crack geometry and the stress state on the crack face plane. This means that the stress level and shape of the stress distribution in the assumed crack path governs thetotal fatigue life. In many structural details the stress distribution is similar and adequate fatigue life estimates can be obtained just by adjusting the stress level based on a single stress value, i.e., the structural hot spot stress. There are, however, cases for which the structural stress approach is less appropriate because the stress distribution differs significantly from the more common cases. Plate edge attachments and plates on elastic foundations are some examples of structures with this type of stress distribution. The importance of fillet weld size and weld load variation on the stress distribution is another central topic in this thesis. Structural hot spot stress determination is generally based on a procedure that involves extrapolation of plate surface stresses. Other possibilities for determining the structural hot spot stress is to extrapolate stresses through the thickness at the weld toe or to use Dong's method which includes through-thickness extrapolation at some distance from the weld toe. Both of these latter methods are less sensitive to the FE mesh used. Structural stress based on surface extrapolation is sensitive to the extrapolation points selected and to the FE mesh used near these points. Rules for proper meshing, however, are well defined and not difficult to apply. To improve the accuracy of the traditional structural hot spot stress, a multi-linear stress distribution is introduced. The magnitude of the weld toe stress after linearization is dependent on the weld size, weld load and plate thickness. Simple equations have been derived by comparing assessment results based on the local linear stress distribution and LEFM based calculations. The proposed method is called the modified structural stress method (MSHS) since the structural hot spot stress (SHS) value is corrected using information on weld size andweld load. The correction procedure is verified using fatigue test results found in the literature. Also, a test case was conducted comparing the proposed method with other local fatigue assessment methods.

Effect of Mechanical and Geometric Mismatching on Fatigue and Damage of Welded Joints

The future of high technology welded constructions will be characterised by higher strength materials and improved weld quality with respect to fatigue resistance. The expected implementation of high quality high strength steel welds will require that more attention be given to the issues of crack initiation and mechanical mismatching. Experiments and finite element analyses were performed within the framework of continuum damage mechanics to investigate the effect of mismatching of welded joints on void nucleation and coalescence during monotonic loading. It was found that the damage of undermatched joints mainly occurred in the sandwich layer and the damageresistance of the joints decreases with the decrease of the sandwich layer width. The damage of over-matched joints mainly occurred in the base metal adjacent to the sandwich layer and the damage resistance of the joints increases with thedecrease of the sandwich layer width. The mechanisms of the initiation of the micro voids/cracks were found to be cracking of the inclusions or the embrittled second phase, and the debonding of the inclusions from the matrix. Experimental fatigue crack growth rate testing showed that the fatigue life of under-matched central crack panel specimens is longer than that of over-matched and even-matched specimens. Further investigation by the elastic-plastic finite element analysis indicated that fatigue crack closure, which originated from the inhomogeneousyielding adjacent to the crack tip, played an important role in the fatigue crack propagation. The applicability of the J integral concept to the mismatched specimens with crack extension under cyclic loading was assessed. The concept of fatigue class used by the International Institute of Welding was introduced in the parametric numerical analysis of several welded joints. The effect of weld geometry and load condition on fatigue strength of ferrite-pearlite steel joints was systematically evaluated based on linear elastic fracture mechanics. Joint types included lap joints, angle joints and butt joints. Various combinations of the tensile and bending loads were considered during the evaluation with the emphasis focused on the existence of both root and toe cracks. For a lap joint with asmall lack-of-penetration, a reasonably large weld leg and smaller flank angle were recommended for engineering practice in order to achieve higher fatigue strength. It was found that the fatigue strength of the angle joint depended strongly on the location and orientation of the preexisting crack-like welding defects, even if the joint was welded with full penetration. It is commonly believed that the double sided butt welds can have significantly higher fatigue strength than that of a single sided welds, but fatigue crack initiation and propagation can originate from the weld root if the welding procedure results in a partial penetration. It is clearly shown that the fatigue strength of the butt joint could be improved remarkably by ensuring full penetration. Nevertheless, increasing the fatigue strength of a butt joint by increasing the size of the weld is an uneconomical alternative.

Väsymiskestävyyden määritys murtumismekaanisilla särönmallinnusohjelmilla

Tässä työssä tutkitaan Wärtsilä Oyj:n moottorin ja ABB Oy:n generaattorin muodostaman aggregaatin väsymiskestävyyttä lineaarisen murtumismekaniikan avulla. Työn tavoitteena on selvittää ABAQUS/XFEM- ja FRANC3D-ohjelman soveltuvuus kuormitukseltaan ja geometrialtaan vaativan generaattorirungon suunnittelutyökaluksi. Generaattorirungon kuormitukset aiheutuvat aggregaatin käynnin sekä käynnistys- ja sammutusvaiheen aikai-sista syntyvistä värähtelyistä. Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan generaattorirungon väsymistä käynninaikaisella kuormituksella. Työssä mallinnettiin generaattorirungosta valittu hitsausdetalji alimallinnustekniikalla, jolloin alimallin reunaehdot voitiin määrittää aggregaatille tehdyn vastelaskennan perus-teella. Alimallista tutkittiin kahta erilaista hitsiliitostyyppiä, joihin mallinnettiin XFEM- ja FRANC3D-ohjelmilla erikokoisia säröjä hitsiliitosten rajaviivalle sekä juuren puolelle. Tutkittavilla ohjelmilla saatujen jännitysintensiteettikertoimien avulla säröille voitiin las-kea ekvivalentti jännitysintensiteettikerroin, jota verrattiin kokeellisesti saatuun jännitysin-tensiteettikertoimen kynnysarvoon. XFEM- ja FRANC3D-ohjelmia vertailtiin käytön helppouden, tulosten tarkkuuden sekä laskenta-aikojen perusteella. Käytettävyyden ja laskenta-aikojen perusteella XFEM-ohjelma soveltui paremmin käytettäväksi teollisuudessa suunnittelu- ja kehitystyön apu-työkaluna. FRANC3D taas antoi XFEM-ohjelmaa luotettavampia tuloksia, mutta laskenta-ajat olivat moninkertaiset.

FAT-luokkien määritys hitsatuille levyliitoksille käyttämällä lineaarisen murtumismekaniikan särönkasvun simulointia

Työssä tutkittiin hitsattujen levyliitosten väsymiskestävyyden mitoitusarvoja. Hitsien väsymiskestävyyden mitoitusarvot määritettiin lineaarista murtumismekaniikkaa soveltavalla 2D FEM-laskentaohjelmalla. Murtumismekaanisen laskennan tuloksista määriteltiin, eri liitosgeometrioiden ja kuormitustyyppien mukaisia, nimellisen jännityksen väsymismitoitusmenetelmää vastaavia FAT-luokkia, joissa on huomioitu rakenteellinen jännitys hitsiä vastaan kohtisuorassa suunnassa. Tutkittujen liitosten geometriat olivat pääsääntöisesti poikkeavia mitoitusstandardien ja ohjeiden sisältämistä taulukkotapauksista. Laskennassa otettiin huomioon hitsien liittymiskulma perusaineeseen, rajaviivan pyöristykset ja vajaa hitsautumissyvyys. Kuormitustyyppien vaihtelua tutkittiin rakenteellisen jännityksen taivutusosuuden muutoksilla ja kuormaa kantavien X-liitosten risteävien kuormituksien suhteellisilla suuruuksilla. Väsymiskestävyydet määritettiin kuormituskohtaisille kalvo- ja taivutusjännityksille sekä näiden jännitysjakaumien keskiarvoille. Työssä saatuja FAT-luokkia voidaan hyödyntää vastaavien geometrioiden ja kuormitusten yhteydessä, sekä interpoloimalla myös tuloksien väliarvoissa. Työssä käytetyillä menetelmillä voidaan parantaa nimellisen jännityksen mitoitusmenetelmän tarkkuutta ja laajentaa sitä koskemaan myös taulukkotapausten ulkopuolisia liitoksia. Työn tuloksissa on esitetty FAT-luokkia T-, X- ja päittäisliitoksille ja näiden eri kuormitusyhdistelmille.

Characterization of mode I disbonding behaviour of carbon/epoxy composites bonded with two adhesion qualities

La mancanza di procedure standard per la verifica delle strutture in compositi, al contrario dei materiali metallici, porta all’esigenza di una continua ricerca nel settore, al fine di ottenere risultati significativi che culminino in una standardizzazione delle procedure. In tale contesto si colloca la ricerca svolta per la stesura del presente elaborato, condotta presso il laboratorio DASML del TU Delft, nei Paesi Bassi. Il materiale studiato è un prepreg (preimpregnated) costituito da fibre di carbonio (M30SC) e matrice epossidica (DT120) con la particolare configurazione [0°/90°/±45°/±45°/90°/0°]. L’adesivo utilizzato per l’incollaggio è di tipo epossidico (FM94K). Il materiale è stato assemblato in laboratorio in modo da ottenere i provini da testare, di tipo DCB, ENF e CCP. Due differenti qualità dello stesso materiale sono state ottenute, una buona ottenuta seguendo le istruzione del produttore, ed una povera ottenuta modificando il processo produttivo suggerito, che risulta in un incollaggio di qualità nettamente inferiore rispetto al primo tipo di materiale. Lo scopo era quello di studiare i comportamenti di entrambe le qualità sotto due diversi modi di carico, modo I o opening mode e modo II o shear mode, entrambi attraverso test quasi-statici e a fatica, così da ottenere risultati comparabili tra di essi che permettano in futuro di identificare se si dispone di un materiale di buona qualità prima di procedere con il progetto dell’intera struttura. L’approccio scelto per lo studio dello sviluppo della delaminazione è un adattamento della teoria della Meccanica della Frattura Lineare Elastica (LEFM)

The fracture toughness of a range of cast steels

A range of plain carbon, carbon-manganese and low alloy cast steels were tested in order to determine their various fracture toughness values under elastic and elastic-plastic conditions. The main fracture toughness parameters which are considered are (1) Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM), (2) the J-Contour Integral, and (3) Crack Opening Displacement (COD). Results are obtained from fracture toughness specimens of various dimensions and the relevance of the validity criteria to cast steels is considered in some detail. In addition, the effect of casting position on specimen toughness values was noted. Valid KIC results according to LEFM, were obtained for three of the eight cast steels tested. Although KIC values from LEFM were not obtained from the remaining five steels, critical COD and J-integral values were determined. It is postulated that these values and particularly the critical J values can be used, with confidence for material selection or in defect tolerance calculations using these steels. Toughness values were found to vary with casting position in several of the steels tested and the possible reasons for such variations are discussed in the Thesis.