Variable speed refrigeration system with HPF input rectifier stage

This paper is based on the analysis and implementation of a new drive system applied to refrigeration systems, complying with the restrictions imposed by the IEC standards (Harmonic/Flicker/EMI-Electromagnetic Interference restrictions), in order to obtain high efficiency, high power factor, reduced harmonic distortion in the input current and reduced electromagnetic interference, with excellent performance in temperature control of a refrigeration prototype system (automatic control, precision and high dynamic response). The proposal is replace the single-phase motor by a three-phase motor, in the conventional refrigeration system. In this way, a proper control technique can be applied, using a closed-loop (feedback control), that will allow an accurate adjustment of the desirable temperature. The proposed refrigeration prototype uses a 0.5Hp three-phase motor and an open (Belt-Drive) Bitzer IY type compressor. The input rectifier stage's features include the reduction in the input current ripple, the reduction in the output voltage ripple, the use of low stress devices, low volume for the EMI input filter, high input power factor (PF), and low total harmonic distortion (THD) in the input current, in compliance with the IEC61000-3-2 standards. The digital controller for the output three-phase inverter stage has been developed using a conventional voltage-frequency control (scalar V/f control), and a simplified stator oriented Vector control, in order to verify the feasibility and performance of the proposed digital controls for continuous temperature control applied at the refrigerator prototype. ©2008 IEEE.

Single stage converters for low power stand-alone and grid-connected PV systems

This work presents the evaluation of different power electronic integrated converters suitable for photovoltaic applications, in order to reduce complexity and improve reliability. The rated voltages available in Photovoltaic (PV) modules have usually low values for applications such as regulated output voltages in stand-alone or grid-connected configurations. In these cases, a boost stage or a transformer will be necessary. Transformers have low efficiencies, heavy weights and have been used only when galvanic isolation is mandatory. Furthermore, high-frequency transformers increase the converter complexity. Therefore, the most usual topologies use a boost stage and one inverter stage cascaded. However, the complexity, size, weight, cost and lifetime might be improved considering the integration of both stages. In this context, some integrated converters are analyzed and compared in this paper in order to support future evaluations and trends for low power single-phase inverters for PV systems. Power decoupling, MPPT and Tri-State modulations are also considered. Finally, simulation and experimental results are presented and compared for the analyzed topologies. © 2011 IEEE.

Evaluation of integrated inverter topologies for low power PV systems

This work presents the stage integration in power electronics converters as a suitable solution for solar photovoltaic inverters. The rated voltages available in Photovoltaic (PV) modules have usually low values for applications such as regulated output voltages in stand-alone or grid-connected configurations. In these cases, a boost stage or a transformer will be necessary. Transformers have low efficiencies, heavy weights and have been used only when galvanic isolation is mandatory. Furthermore, high-frequency transformers increase the converter complexity. Therefore, the most usual topologies use a boost stage and one inverter stage cascaded. However, the complexity, size, weight, cost and lifetime might be improved considering the integration of both stages. These are the expected features to turn attractive this kind of integrated structures. Therefore, some integrated converters are analyzed and compared in this paper in order to support future evaluations and trends for low power single-phase inverters for PV systems. © 2011 IEEE.

Modeling and analysis of a novel variable-speed cage induction generator

This paper introduces a novel cage induction generator and presents a mathematical model, through which its behavior can be accurately predicted. The proposed generator system employs a three-phase cage induction machine and generates single-phase and constant-frequency electricity at varying rotor speeds without an intermediate inverter stage. The technique uses any one of the three stator phases of the machine as the excitation winding and the remaining two phases, which are connected in series, as the power winding. The two-series-connected-and-one-isolated (TSCAOI) phase winding configuration magnetically decouples the two sets of windings, enabling independent control. Electricity is generated through the power winding at both sub- and super-synchronous speeds with appropriate excitation to the isolated single winding at any frequency of generation. A dynamic mathematical model, which accurately predicts the behavior of the proposed generator, is also presented and implemented in MATLAB/Simulink. Experimental results of a 2-kW prototype generator under various operating conditions are presented, together with theoretical results, to demonstrate the viability of the TSCAOI power generation. The proposed generator is simple and capable of both storage and retrieval of energy through its excitation winding and is expected to be suitable for applications, such as small wind turbines and microhydro systems.

A HPF AC-AC converter for Permanent Magnet Generator applications

This paper describes the design and development of a high input power-factor (HPF) AC to AC converter for naval applications using Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG). The proposed converter comprises an isolated three-phase uncontrolled multipulse rectification stage directly connected to a single-phase inverter stage, without the use of DC to DC intermediary stage, resulting in more simplicity for the overall circuitry, assuring robustness, reliability and reduced costs. Furthermore, the multipulse rectifier stage is capable to provide high power factor and input currents with low total harmonic distortion (THD). The output voltage of the PMG varies from 260V rms (220 Hz) to 380V rms (360 Hz), depending on load conditions. The output single-phase inverter stage was designed to operate with wide range of DC bus voltage, maintaining 120V rms, 60 Hz output. Measured total harmonic distortion for the AC output voltage represents less than 2%, at 3.6kW nominal linear load. © 2010 IEEE.

Conversor CA-CA de elevado fator de potência para aplicações com geradores de Ímã permanente

This paper proposes and describes a high power factor AC-AC converter for naval applications using Permanent Magnet Generator (PMG). The three-phase output voltages of the PMG vary from 260 Vrms (220 Hz) to 380 Vrms (360 Hz), depending on load conditions. The proposed converter consists of a Y-/ΔY power transformer, which provides electrical isolation between the PMG and remaining stages, and a twelve-pulse uncontrolled rectifier stage directly connected to a single-phase inverter stage, without the use of an intermediary DC-DC topology. This proposal results in more simplicity for the overall circuitry, assuring robustness, reliability and reduced costs. Furthermore, the multipulse rectifier stage is capable to provide high power factor and low total harmonic distortion for the input currents of the converter. The single-phase inverter stage was designed to operate with wide range of DC bus voltage, maintaining 120 Vrms, 60 Hz output. The control philosophy, implemented in a digital signal processor (DSP) which also contains protection routines, alows series connections between two identical converters, achieving 240 Vrms, 60 Hz total output voltage. Measured total harmonic distortion for the AC output voltage is lower than 2% and the input power factor is 0.93 at 3.6kW nominal load. © 2010 IEEE.

Conversor para pulsos elétricos de alta tensão, de curta duração, para processos de geração de ozônio

Pós-graduação em Engenharia Elétrica - FEIS

A single-phase single-stage buck-boost inverter intended for low power alternative energy conversion systems: Analysis, design and experimentation

This paper presents the operational analysis of the single-phase integrated buck-boost inverter. This topology is able to convert the DC input voltage into AC voltage with a high static gain, low harmonic content and acceptable efficiency, all in one single-stage. Main functionality aspects are explained, design procedure, system modeling and control, and also component requirements are detailed. Main simulation results are included, and two prototypes were implemented and experimentally tested, where its results are compared with those corresponding to similar topologies available in literature. © 2012 IEEE.

Z-source-inverter-based flexible distributed generation system solution for grid power quality improvement

Distributed generation (DG) systems are usually connected to the grid using power electronic converters. Power delivered from such DG sources depends on factors like energy availability and load demand. The converters used in power conversion do not operate with their full capacity all the time. The unused or remaining capacity of the converters could be used to provide some ancillary functions like harmonic and unbalance mitigation of the power distribution system. As some of these DG sources have wide operating ranges, they need special power converters for grid interfacing. Being a single-stage buck-boost inverter, recently proposed Z-source inverter (ZSI) is a good candidate for future DG systems. This paper presents a controller design for a ZSI-based DG system to improve power quality of distribution systems. The proposed control method is tested with simulation results obtained using Matlab/Simulink/PLECS and subsequently it is experimentally validated using a laboratory prototype.

Controller design for variable-speed permanent magnet wind turbine generators interfaced with Z-source inverter

Increased awareness of environmental concerns has caused greater interest in developing power sources based on renewable technologies, such as wind. Due to the intermittent nature of the wind speed, output voltage and frequency of the direct driven permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSG) are normally unsteady. Recently proposed Z-source inverter has been considered as a potential solution for grid interfacing wind power generators, thanks to buck-boost function that the single stage Z-source inverter can offer. Two control methodologies, namely unified controller for isolated operation and a multi-loop controller for grid interfaced operation are investigated in this paper. Theoretical analysis of these two control schemes is presented and experimental results to verify the effectiveness of the control method are also included.

Micro-inverter for integrated grid-tie PV module using resonant controller

Two-stage isolated converters for photovoltaic (PV) applications commonly employ a high-frequency transformer on the DC-DC side, submitting the DC-AC inverter switches to high voltages and forcing the use of IGBTs instead of low-voltage and low-loss MOSFETs. This paper shows the modeling, control and simulation of a single-phase full-bridge inverter with high-frequency transformer (HFT) that can be used as part of a two-stage converter with transformerless DC-DC side or as a single-stage converter (simple DC-AC inverter) for grid-connected PV applications. The inverter is modeled in order to obtain a small-signal transfer function used to design the PResonant current control regulator. A high-frequency step-up transformer results in reduced voltage switches and better efficiency compared with converters in which the transformer is used on the DC-DC side. Simulations and experimental results with a 200 W prototype are shown. © 2012 IEEE.

Differential mixer with NMOS/PMOS stack at switching stage

This paper proposes a novel differential mixer topology. The traditional stage of switching is replaced by a stack of NMOS and PMOS transistors combined. A design is given of a 900 MHz down-conversion mixer using a 0.35 μm CMOS process. Comparison with conventional mixer shows that the topology leads to a better performance in terms of conversion gain and linearity. ©2012 IEEE.

Micro-inverter for integrated grid-tie photovoltaic module using resonant controller

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Single-Stage Grid-Connected Forward Microinverter with Boundary Mode Control

This paper presents a microinverter to be integrated into a solar module. The proposed solution combines a forward converter and a constant off-time boundary mode control, providing MPPT capability and unity power factor in a single-stage converter. The transformer structure of the power stage remains as in the classical DC-DC forward converter. Transformer primary windings are utilized for power transfer or demagnetization depending on the grid semi-cycle. Furthermore, bidirectional switches are used on the secondary side allowing direct connection of the inverter to the grid. Design considerations for the proposed solution are provided, regarding the inductance value, transformer turns ratio and frequency variation during a line semi-cycle. The decoupling of the twice the line frequency power pulsation is also discussed, as well as the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) capability. Simulation and experimental results for a 100W prototype are enclosed

Multiphase Design and Control Techniques Applied to a Forward Micro-Inverter

En la última década la potencia instalada de energía solar fotovoltaica ha crecido una media de un 49% anual y se espera que alcance el 16%del consumo energético mundial en el año 2050. La mayor parte de estas instalaciones se corresponden con sistemas conectados a la red eléctrica y un amplio porcentaje de ellas son instalaciones domésticas o en edificios. En el mercado ya existen diferentes arquitecturas para este tipo de instalaciones, entre las que se encuentras los módulos AC. Un módulo AC consiste en un inversor, también conocido como micro-inversor, que se monta en la parte trasera de un panel o módulo fotovoltaico. Esta tecnología ofrece modularidad, redundancia y la extracción de la máxima potencia de cada panel solar de la instalación. Además, la expansión de esta tecnología posibilitará una reducción de costes asociados a las economías de escala y a la posibilidad de que el propio usuario pueda componer su propio sistema. Sin embargo, el micro-inversor debe ser capaz de proporcionar una ganancia de tensión adecuada para conectar el panel solar directamente a la red, mientras mantiene un rendimiento aceptable en un amplio rango de potencias. Asimismo, los estándares de conexión a red deber ser satisfechos y el tamaño y el tiempo de vida del micro-inversor son factores que han de tenerse siempre en cuenta. En esta tesis se propone un micro-inversor derivado de la topología “forward” controlado en el límite entre los modos de conducción continuo y discontinuo (BCM por sus siglas en inglés). El transformador de la topología propuesta mantiene la misma estructura que en el convertidor “forward” clásico y la utilización de interruptores bidireccionales en el secundario permite la conexión directa del inversor a la red. Asimismo el método de control elegido permite obtener factor de potencia cercano a la unidad con una implementación sencilla. En la tesis se presenta el principio de funcionamiento y los principales aspectos del diseño del micro-inversor propuesto. Con la idea de mantener una solución sencilla y de bajo coste, se ha seleccionado un controlador analógico que está originalmente pensado para controlar un corrector del factor de potencia en el mismo modo de conducción que el micro-inversor “forward”. La tesis presenta las principales modificaciones necesarias, con especial atención a la detección del cruce por cero de la corriente (ZCD por sus siglas en inglés) y la compatibilidad del controlador con la inclusión de un algoritmo de búsqueda del punto de máxima potencia (MPPT por sus siglas en inglés). Los resultados experimentales muestran las limitaciones de la implementación elegida e identifican al transformador como el principal contribuyente a las pérdidas del micro-inversor. El principal objetivo de esta tesis es contribuir a la aplicación de técnicas de control y diseño de sistemas multifase en micro-inversores fotovoltaicos. En esta tesis se van a considerar dos configuraciones multifase diferentes aplicadas al micro-inversor “forward” propuesto. La primera consiste en una variación con conexión paralelo-serie que permite la utilización de transformadores con una relación de vueltas baja, y por tanto bien acoplados, para conseguir una ganancia de tensión adecuada con un mejor rendimiento. Esta configuración emplea el mismo control BCM cuando la potencia extraída del panel solar es máxima. Este método de control implica que la frecuencia de conmutación se incrementa considerablemente cuando la potencia decrece, lo que compromete el rendimiento. Por lo tanto y con la intención de mantener unos bueno niveles de rendimiento ponderado, el micro-inversor funciona en modo de conducción discontinuo (DCM, por sus siglas en inglés) cuando la potencia extraía del panel solar es menor que la máxima. La segunda configuración multifase considerada en esta tesis es la aplicación de la técnica de paralelo con entrelazado. Además se han considerado dos técnicas diferentes para decidir el número de fases activas: dependiendo de la potencia continua extraída del panel solar y dependiendo de la potencia instantánea demandada por el micro-inversor. La aplicación de estas técnicas es interesante en los sistemas fotovoltaicos conectados a la red eléctrica por la posibilidad que brindan de obtener un rendimiento prácticamente plano en un amplio rango de potencia. Las configuraciones con entrelazado se controlan en DCM para evitar la necesidad de un control de corriente, lo que es importante cuando el número de fases es alto. Los núcleos adecuados para todas las configuraciones multifase consideradas se seleccionan usando el producto de áreas. Una vez seleccionados los núcleos se ha realizado un diseño detallado de cada uno de los transformadores. Con la información obtenida de los diseños y los resultados de simulación, se puede analizar el impacto que el número de transformadores utilizados tiene en el tamaño y el rendimiento de las distintas configuraciones. Los resultados de este análisis, presentado en esta tesis, se utilizan posteriormente para comparar las distintas configuraciones. Muchas otras topologías se han presentado en la literatura para abordar los diferentes aspectos a considerar en los micro-inversores, que han sido presentados anteriormente. La mayoría de estas topologías utilizan un transformador de alta frecuencia para solventar el salto de tensión y evitar problemas de seguridad y de puesta a tierra. En cualquier caso, es interesante evaluar si topologías sin aislamiento galvánico son aptas para su utilización como micro-inversores. En esta tesis se presenta una revisión de inversores con capacidad de elevar tensión, que se comparan bajo las mismas especificaciones. El objetivo es proporcionar la información necesaria para valorar si estas topologías son aplicables en los módulos AC. Las principales contribuciones de esta tesis son: • La aplicación del control BCM a un convertidor “forward” para obtener un micro-inversor de una etapa sencillo y de bajo coste. • La modificación de dicho micro-inversor con conexión paralelo-series de transformadores que permite reducir la corriente de los semiconductores y una ganancia de tensión adecuada con transformadores altamente acoplados. • La aplicación de técnicas de entrelazado y decisión de apagado de fases en la puesta en paralelo del micro-inversor “forward”. • El análisis y la comparación del efecto en el tamaño y el rendimiento del incremento del número de transformadores en las diferentes configuraciones multifase. • La eliminación de las medidas y los lazos de control de corriente en las topologías multifase con la utilización del modo de conducción discontinuo y un algoritmo MPPT sin necesidad de medida de corriente. • La recopilación y comparación bajo las mismas especificaciones de topologías inversoras con capacidad de elevar tensión, que pueden ser adecuadas para la utilización como micro-inversores. Esta tesis está estructurada en seis capítulos. El capítulo 1 presenta el marco en que se desarrolla la tesis así como el alcance de la misma. En el capítulo 2 se recopilan las topologías existentes de micro-invesores con aislamiento y aquellas sin aislamiento cuya implementación en un módulo AC es factible. Asimismo se presenta la comparación entre estas topologías bajo las mismas especificaciones. El capítulo 3 se centra en el micro-inversor “forward” que se propone originalmente en esta tesis. La aplicación de las técnicas multifase se aborda en los capítulos 4 y 5, en los que se presentan los análisis en función del número de transformadores. El capítulo está orientado a la propuesta paralelo-serie mientras que la configuración con entrelazado se analiza en el capítulo 5. Por último, en el capítulo 6 se presentan las contribuciones de esta tesis y los trabajos futuros. ABSTRACT In the last decade the photovoltaic (PV) installed power increased with an average growth of 49% per year and it is expected to cover the 16% of the global electricity consumption by 2050. Most of the installed PV power corresponds to grid-connected systems, with a significant percentage of residential installations. In these PV systems, the inverter is essential since it is the responsible of transferring into the grid the extracted power from the PV modules. Several architectures have been proposed for grid-connected residential PV systems, including the AC-module technology. An AC-module consists of an inverter, also known as micro-inverter, which is attached to a PV module. The AC-module technology offers modularity, redundancy and individual MPPT of each module. In addition, the expansion of this technology will enable the possibility of economies of scale of mass market and “plug and play” for the user, thus reducing the overall cost of the installation. However, the micro-inverter must be able to provide the required voltage boost to interface a low voltage PV module to the grid while keeping an acceptable efficiency in a wide power range. Furthermore, the quality standards must be satisfied and size and lifetime of the solutions must be always considered. In this thesis a single-stage forward micro-inverter with boundary mode operation is proposed to address the micro-inverter requirements. The transformer in the proposed topology remains as in the classic forward converter and bidirectional switches in the secondary side allows direct connection to the grid. In addition the selected control strategy allows high power factor current with a simple implementation. The operation of the topology is presented and the main design issues are introduced. With the intention to propose a simple and low-cost solution, an analog controller for a PFC operated in boundary mode is utilized. The main necessary modifications are discussed, with the focus on the zero current detection (ZCD) and the compatibility of the controller with a MPPT algorithm. The experimental results show the limitations of the selected analog controller implementation and the transformer is identified as a main losses contributor. The main objective of this thesis is to contribute in the application of control and design multiphase techniques to the PV micro-inverters. Two different multiphase configurations have been applied to the forward micro-inverter proposed in this thesis. The first one consists of a parallel-series connected variation which enables the use of low turns ratio, i.e. well coupled, transformers to achieve a proper voltage boost with an improved performance. This multiphase configuration implements BCM control at maximum load however. With this control method the switching frequency increases significantly for light load operation, thus jeopardizing the efficiency. Therefore, in order to keep acceptable weighted efficiency levels, DCM operation is selected for low power conditions. The second multiphase variation considered in this thesis is the interleaved configuration with two different phase shedding techniques: depending on the DC power extracted from the PV panel, and depending on the demanded instantaneous power. The application of interleaving techniques is interesting in PV grid-connected inverters for the possibility of flat efficiency behavior in a wide power range. The interleaved variations of the proposed forward micro-inverter are operated in DCM to avoid the current loop, which is important when the number of phases is large. The adequate transformer cores for all the multiphase configurations are selected according to the area product parameter and a detailed design of each required transformer is developed. With this information and simulation results, the impact in size and efficiency of the number of transformer used can be assessed. The considered multiphase topologies are compared in this thesis according to the results of the introduced analysis. Several other topological solutions have been proposed to solve the mentioned concerns in AC-module application. The most of these solutions use a high frequency transformer to boost the voltage and avoid grounding and safety issues. However, it is of interest to assess if the non-isolated topologies are suitable for AC-module application. In this thesis a review of transformerless step-up inverters is presented. The compiled topologies are compared using a set benchmark to provide the necessary information to assess whether non-isolated topologies are suitable for AC-module application. The main contributions of this thesis are: • The application of the boundary mode control with constant off-time to a forward converter, to obtain a simple and low-cost single-stage forward micro-inverter. • A modification of the forward micro-inverter with primary-parallel secondary-series connected transformers to reduce the current stress and improve the voltage gain with highly coupled transformers. •The application of the interleaved configuration with different phase shedding strategies to the proposed forward micro-inverter. • An analysis and comparison of the influence in size and efficiency of increasing the number of transformers in the parallel-series and interleaved multiphase configurations. • Elimination of the current loop and current measurements in the multiphase topologies by adopting DCM operation and a current sensorless MPPT. • A compilation and comparison with the same specifications of suitable non-isolated step-up inverters. This thesis is organized in six chapters. In Chapter 1 the background of single-phase PV-connected systems is discussed and the scope of the thesis is defined. Chapter 2 compiles the existing solutions for isolated micro-inverters and transformerless step-up inverters suitable for AC-module application. In addition, the most convenient non-isolated inverters are compared using a defined benchmark. Chapter 3 focuses on the originally proposed single-stage forward micro-inverter. The application of multiphase techniques is addressed in Chapter 4 and Chapter 5, and the impact in different parameters of increasing the number of phases is analyzed. In Chapter 4 an original primary-parallel secondary-series variation of the forward micro-inverter is presented, while Chapter 5 focuses on the application of the interleaved configuration. Finally, Chapter 6 discusses the contributions of the thesis and the future work.