La protection des données personnelles en droit international privé

Les nouvelles technologies et l’arrivée de l’Internet ont considérablement facilité les échanges transnationaux de données entre les entreprises publiques et/ou privées et également entre les personnes elles-mêmes. Cependant cette révolution numérique n’a pas été sans conséquences sur l’utilisation de nos données personnelles puisque cette abondance de données à la portée de tiers peut conduire à des atteintes : la commercialisation des données personnelles sans le consentement de l’intéressé par des entreprises ou encore la diffusion de sa photographie, de son nom, de son prénom à son insu en sont des exemples. La question qui vient alors se poser est en cas de litige, c’est-à-dire en cas d’atteintes au droit à la protection de nos données personnelles, présentant un ou des éléments d’extranéité, quels tribunaux pouvons-nous saisir ? Et quelle est la loi qui sera applicable ? Les droits québécois, de l’Union européenne, et suisse présentent différents critères de rattachement intéressants et adaptés à des situations prenant place hors et sur internet. Le droit commun de chacun de ces systèmes est envisagé, puis appliqué aux données personnelles dans le cadre d’une situation normale, et ensuite à internet si la situation diffère. La doctrine est également analysée dans la mesure où certaines solutions sont tout à fait intéressantes, et cela notamment sur internet. Un premier chapitre est consacré à la compétence internationale des tribunaux et aux critères de rattachement envisageables en droit commun à savoir notamment : le tribunal de l’État de survenance du préjudice, le tribunal de l’État de la faute ou encore le tribunal du domicile de la victime. Et ceux prévus ou non par la doctrine tels que l’accessibilité et le ciblage par exemple. Les conflits de lois sont étudiés dans un deuxième chapitre avec également l’énumération les différents facteurs de rattachement envisageables en droit commun comme la loi de l’État du préjudice, la loi de l’État de la faute ou encore la loi de l’État favorisant la victime. Et également ceux prévus par la doctrine : la loi de l’État « offrant la meilleure protection des données à caractère personnel » ou encore la loi de l’État où est établi le « maître du fichier ». Le tribunal le plus compétent au regard des principes généraux de droit international privé en cas d’atteintes au droit de la protection des données personnelles hors et sur internet est le tribunal de l’État du domicile de la victime. Et la meilleure loi applicable est la loi de l’État du domicile ou de la résidence principale du demandeur et du défendeur à l’instance, et dans le cas où la situation ne présente pas d’éléments d’extranéité, la meilleure loi est la loi favorisant la victime.

La protection des données personnelles en droit international privé

Les nouvelles technologies et l’arrivée de l’Internet ont considérablement facilité les échanges transnationaux de données entre les entreprises publiques et/ou privées et également entre les personnes elles-mêmes. Cependant cette révolution numérique n’a pas été sans conséquences sur l’utilisation de nos données personnelles puisque cette abondance de données à la portée de tiers peut conduire à des atteintes : la commercialisation des données personnelles sans le consentement de l’intéressé par des entreprises ou encore la diffusion de sa photographie, de son nom, de son prénom à son insu en sont des exemples. La question qui vient alors se poser est en cas de litige, c’est-à-dire en cas d’atteintes au droit à la protection de nos données personnelles, présentant un ou des éléments d’extranéité, quels tribunaux pouvons-nous saisir ? Et quelle est la loi qui sera applicable ? Les droits québécois, de l’Union européenne, et suisse présentent différents critères de rattachement intéressants et adaptés à des situations prenant place hors et sur internet. Le droit commun de chacun de ces systèmes est envisagé, puis appliqué aux données personnelles dans le cadre d’une situation normale, et ensuite à internet si la situation diffère. La doctrine est également analysée dans la mesure où certaines solutions sont tout à fait intéressantes, et cela notamment sur internet. Un premier chapitre est consacré à la compétence internationale des tribunaux et aux critères de rattachement envisageables en droit commun à savoir notamment : le tribunal de l’État de survenance du préjudice, le tribunal de l’État de la faute ou encore le tribunal du domicile de la victime. Et ceux prévus ou non par la doctrine tels que l’accessibilité et le ciblage par exemple. Les conflits de lois sont étudiés dans un deuxième chapitre avec également l’énumération les différents facteurs de rattachement envisageables en droit commun comme la loi de l’État du préjudice, la loi de l’État de la faute ou encore la loi de l’État favorisant la victime. Et également ceux prévus par la doctrine : la loi de l’État « offrant la meilleure protection des données à caractère personnel » ou encore la loi de l’État où est établi le « maître du fichier ». Le tribunal le plus compétent au regard des principes généraux de droit international privé en cas d’atteintes au droit de la protection des données personnelles hors et sur internet est le tribunal de l’État du domicile de la victime. Et la meilleure loi applicable est la loi de l’État du domicile ou de la résidence principale du demandeur et du défendeur à l’instance, et dans le cas où la situation ne présente pas d’éléments d’extranéité, la meilleure loi est la loi favorisant la victime.

Cooperación jurisdiccional civil de primer grado : tratamiento de los exhortos o cartas rogatorias

Resumen: Existe una realidad que supera todo, que es la internacionalización de las relaciones jurídicas y el derecho legislado en un país no es ni puede ser autosuficiente para resolver los litigios que se presentan y es allí donde como necesidad sociológica aparece el derecho procesal internacional, como parte integrante del derecho internacional privado. La cooperación jurisdiccional de primer grado es comprensiva de un marco amplio en el plano convencional, que resulta en general adecuado en sus ratificaciones para la República, que a su vez posee regulación interna. La concepción del orden público será más flexible en la cooperación jurisdiccional internacional y no integra el orden público la cosa juzgada en el país, ni la litispendencia, elementos que han de evaluarse al momento del reconocimiento. Este primer grado de cooperación abarca en sentido amplio las distintas vías de comunicación entre las que principalmente se encuentran las comunicaciones de mero trámite, la obtención de pruebas en el extranjero y la información del derecho extranjero. Como vía de comunicación, en su finalidad, el exhorto busca la realización de la justicia. El control de la competencia judicial internacional en los exhortos internacionales como requisito de la obligatoriedad para el juez requerido, es eliminado en las modernas tendencias, limitándose a la compatibilidad de él con el orden público del juez requerido. En este rumbo deberían orientarse las futuras reformas de la legislación interna en la materia.

Nada além da verdade? a consolidação do direito à verdade e seu exercício por comissões e tribunais

O trabalho expõe a consolidação do direito à verdade pelo Direito Internacional e a complementaridade entre as comissões da verdade e os tribunais, mecanismos de justiça de transição, como a combinação que melhor lhe confere aplicabilidade. Primeiramente, a tese reivindica que a transição e a consolidação democrática devem se dar por meio da prestação de contas com o passado, o que se torna possível na medida em que se promoveram a partir da 2a Guerra Mundial significativas alterações no Direito Internacional, que se afasta do paradigma vesfaliano de soberania. Aborda-se assim o excepcional desenvolvimento do Direito Internacional dos Direitos Humanos, do Direito Internacional Humanitário e do Direito Penal Internacional, centralizados na ideia de responsabilidade. A tese também abrange o desenvolvimento do direito à verdade no seio da Organização das Nações Unidas e dos sistemas regionais de proteção de direitos humanos, tendo alcançado o status de norma imperativa ou peremptória, sendo explorados os obstáculos ao seu exercício como no caso de anistias e outras medidas similiares como a prescrição, a justiça militar e a coisa julgada. Enfrentam-se, ainda, as potencialidades e limites da verdade que resulta de comissões da verdade e dos tribunais, concebida esta como conhecimento sobre os fatos e o reconhecimento da responsabilidade pelo ocorrido. O trabalho aborda temas como a independência e imparcialidade das comissões de verdade, seus poderes e o alcance de suas conclusões e recomendações. Por sua vez, com vistas a identificar as verdades a serem alcançadas pelos tribunais, privilegia-se o processo criminal, por se entender que a sentença penal pressupõe o exercício mais completo do devido processo. A imperatividade do direito à verdade é também demonstrada pela defesa da participação da vítima no processo criminal e da admissão de culpa por parte do acusado -- ambos consagrados pelo Tratado de Roma. Por fim, a tese analisa alguns cenários para a complementaridade entre estes dois mecanismos de justiça de transição, fazendo o estudo dos casos do Chile, Peru, Serra Leoa e Quênia, casos estes permeados pelo Direito Internacional, seja pela influência da jurisdição universal ou pelo impacto da jurisdição internacional. O caso brasileiro, por certo, não se ajusta a nenhum destes cenários. Sua caracterização como um diálogo em aberto, para efeitos deste trabalho, pressupõe que o Brasil encontra-se em um importante momento de decisão sobre a complementaridade entre comissões da verdade e tribunais - a recente aprovação da Comissão Nacional da Verdade deve conviver com o aparente conflito entre a decisão do Supremo Tribunal Federal, que afirmou a constitucionalidade da Lei de Anistia de 1979, e a decisão da Corte Interamericana no caso Araguaia, que entende nulos os dispositivos da lei que obstaculizam o processamento dos responsáveis, ambas no ano de 2010 - com a oportunidade de demonstrar que a passagem do tempo não arrefece as obrigações a que se comprometeu no cenário internacional.

A transnacionalidade do comércio eletrônico: uma análise dos desafios e logros no âmbito do Direito Internacional Privado

Ante a crescente utilização dos meios eletrônicos como forma de viabilizar o comércio de produtos e serviços além das fronteiras estatais o presente estudo tem como escopo identificar os desafios oriundos do embate entre a realidade cibernética e o direito internacional contemporâneo, pontuando, de forma crítica, as soluções descortinadas pela sociedade internacional. Isto porque as questões de direito internacional, já conflituosas no âmbito do comércio internacional tradicional, se mostram ainda mais subjetivas no peculiar ambiente virtual, em regra desmaterializado e a desterritorializado. Tais características e peculiaridades refletem na identificação da jurisdição e da lei aplicável no contrato eletrônico, nas soluções para o combate do cibercrime e na solução alternativa de conflitos, ademais de outros temas que foram possíveis de serem abordados neste estudo. Para tanto é proposto um exame das soluções até então desenvolvidas para a regularização e/ou padronização das condutas no âmbito do comércio internacional por via eletrônica, colacionando a normativa e a jurisprudência implementadas e/ou em desenvolvimento na área.

A corte interamericana de Direitos Humanos e a implementação de políticas públicas brasileiras

Pós-graduação em Direito - FCHS

Infringement and Exclusive Jurisdiction in Intellectual Property: a Comparison for the International Law Association

The following comparison was written for the first meeting of the International Law Association newly established (2010) Committee on Intellectual Property and Private International Law (Chair: Professor Toshiyuki Kono, Kyushu University; Co-Rapporteurs: Professors Pedro de Miguel Asensio, Madrid Complutense University, and Axel Metzger, Hannover University) (hereinafter: ILA Committee), which was hosted at the Faculty of Law of the University of Lisbon in March 16-17, 2012. The comparison at stake concerns the rules on infringement and exclusive (subject-mater) jurisdiction posed (or rejected, in case of exclusive jurisdiction) by four sets of academic principles. Notwithstanding the fact that the rules in question present several differences, those differences in the majority of cases could be overcome by further studies and work of the ILA Committee, as the following comparison explains.

A treatise on international law, and a short explanation of the jurisdiction and duty of the government of the republic of the United States.

Mode of access: Internet.

The international regulation of transnational mergers

Transnational mergers are mergers involving firms operating in more than one jurisdiction, or which occur in one jurisdiction but have an impact on competition in another. Being of this nature, they have the potential to raise competition law concerns in more than one jurisdiction. When they do, the transaction costs of the merger to the firms involved, and the competition law authorities, are likely to increase significantly and, even where the merger is allowed to proceed, delays are likely to occur in reaping the benefits of the merger. Ultimately, these costs are borne by consumers. This thesis will identify the nature and source of regulatory costs associated with transnational merger review and identify and evaluate possible mechanisms by which these costs might be reduced. It will conclude that there is no single panacea for transnational merger regulation, but that a multi-faceted approach, including the adoption of common filing forms, agreement on filing and review deadlines and continuing efforts toward increasing international cooperation in merger enforcement, is needed to reduce regulatory costs and more successfully improve the welfare outcomes to which merger regulation is directed.

Copyright protections and disability rights : turning the page to a new international paradigm

This paper argues that governments around the world need to take immediate coordinated action to reverse the 'book famine.' There are over 129 million book titles in the world, but persons with print disabilities can obtain less than 7% of these titles in formats that they can read. The situation is most acute in developing countries, where less than 1% of books are accessible. Two recent international developments – the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (‘CRPD’) and the new Marrakesh Treaty to Facilitate Access to Published Works for Persons who are Blind, Visually Impaired, or otherwise Print Disabled (somewhat ironically nicknamed the ‘VIP Treaty’) – suggest that nation states are increasingly willing to take action to reverse the book famine. The Marrakesh Treaty promises to level out some of the disparity of access between people in developed and developing nations and remove the need for each jurisdiction to digitise a separate copy of each book. This is a remarkable advance, and suggests the beginnings of a possible paradigm shift in global copyright politicsmade all the more remarkable in the face of heated opposition by global copyright industry representatives. Now that the Marrakesh Treaty has been concluded, however, we argue that a substantial exercise of global political will is required to (a) invest the funds required to digitise existing books; and (b) avert any further harm by ensuring that books published in the future are made accessible upon their release.

Double tax agreements and the international allocation of business income in Australia

Increasingly, the effectiveness of the present system of taxation of international businesses is being questioned. The problem associated with the taxation of such businesses is twofold. A system of international taxation must be a fair and equitable system, distributing profits between the relevant jurisdictions and, in doing so, avoiding double taxation. At the same time, the prevention of fiscal evasion must be secured. In an attempt to achieve a fair and equitable system Australia adopts unilateral, bilateral and multilateral measures to avoid double taxation and restrict the avoidance of tax. The first step in ascertaining the international allocation of business income is to consider the taxation of business income according to domestic law, that is, the unilateral measures. The treatment of international business income under the Australian domestic law, that is, the Income Tax Assessment Act 1936 (Cth) and Income Tax Assessment Act 1997 (Cth), will depend on two concepts, first, whether the taxpayer is a resident of Australia and secondly, whether the income is sourced in Australia. After the taxation of business profits has been determined according to domestic law it is necessary to consider the applicability of the bilateral measures, that is, the Double Tax Agreements (DTAs) to which Australia is a party, as the DTAs will override the domestic law where there is any conflict. Australia is a party to 40 DTAs with another seven presently being negotiated. The preamble to Australia's DTAs provides that the purpose of such agreements is 'to conclude an Agreement for the avoidance of double taxation and the prevention of fiscal evasion with respect to taxes on income'. Both purposes, for different reasons, are equally important. It has been said that: The taxpayer hopes the treaty will prevent the double taxation of his income; the tax gatherer hopes the treaty will prevent fiscal evasion; and the politician just hopes. The first purpose, the avoidance of double taxation, is achieved through the provision of rules whereby the Contracting States agree to the classification of income and the allocation of that income to a particular State. In this sense DTAs do not allocate jurisdiction to tax but rather provide an arrangement whereby the States agree to restrict their substantive law. The restriction is either through the non-taxing of the income or via the provision of a tax credit.

A nation’s role in addressing base erosion and profit shifting : balancing sovereignty with international collaboration and coordination

The notion of sovereignty is central to any international tax issue. While a nation is free to design its tax laws as it sees fit and raise revenue in accordance with the needs of its citizens, it is not possible to undertake such a task in isolation. In a world of cross-border investments and business transactions, all tax regimes impact on one another. Tax interactions between sovereign states cannot be avoided. Ultimately, the interactions mean that a nation must decide whether to engage in both collaboration and coordination with other nations and supranational bodies alike or maintain an individualised stance in relation to its tax policy. Whatever the decision, there is arguably an exercise in national sovereignty in some form. In the context of an international tax regime, whether that regime is interpreted broadly as meaning international norms generally adopted by nations around the world or domestic regimes legislating for cross-border transactions, rhetoric around national fiscal sovereignty takes on many different forms. At one end of the spectrum it is relied upon by financial secrecy jurisdictions (tax havens) as a defence to their position on the basis that ‘other’ nations cannot interfere with the fiscal sovereignty of a jurisdiction. At the other end of the spectrum, it is argued that profit shifting and international tax avoidance if not stopped is, in and of itself, a threat to a nation’s fiscal sovereignty on the basis that it threatens the ability to tax and raise the revenue needed. This paper considers a modern conceptualisation of sovereignty along with its role within international tax coordination and collaboration to argue that a move towards a more unified approach to addressing international base erosion and profit shifting may be the ultimate exercise of national fiscal sovereignty. By using the current transfer pricing regime as a case study, this paper posits that it is not merely enough to have international agreement on allocation rules to be applied, but that the ultimate exercise of national sovereignty is political agreement with other states to ensure that it is governments which determine the allocational basis of worldwide profits to be taxed. In doing so, it is demonstrated that the arm’s length pricing requirement of the current transfer pricing regime, rather than providing governments with the ability to determine the location of profits, is providing multinational entities with the ultimate power to determine that location. If left unchecked, this will eventually erode a nation’s ability to capture the required tax revenue and, as a consequence, may be deemed a failure by nation states to exercise their fiscal sovereignty.