'You can criticise because you care': Identification, constructiveness, and the intergroup sensitivity effect

Group criticisms judged to be reasonable in the mouth of an ingroup member are aggressively rejected when they stem from an outgroup member (the intergroup sensitivity effect). Mediational analyses suggest that this phenomenon is underpinned by an attributional bias; criticisms from insiders are more likely to be perceived as being motivated for constructive reasons than are criticisms from outsiders, thus arousing lower levels of defensiveness. But what if group members were to receive information that called into question the ingroup critic's commitment to the group? For example, if the ingroup critic was known to be a low identifier with their group, or used language to suggest that they were psychologically distancing themselves from their group, we might expect that ingroup critics will be downgraded as strongly as outgroup critics. Furthermore, it might be possible for people to turn an outgroup criticism into an ingroup criticism by making salient their shared identity at the superordinate level. Three experiments are described that provide support for each of these propositions.

Criticizing groups from the inside and the outside: An identity perspective on the intergroup sensitivity effect

Research on group criticism has demonstrated that criticisms are received less defensively when made by an ingroup member than when made by an outsider (the intergroup sensitivity effect). Three experiments tested the extent to which this effect is driven by social identity concerns or by judgments of how experienced the source of the criticism is. In Experiments I and 2, Australians who criticized Australia (ingroup critics) were met with less defensiveness than were foreigners who criticized Australia (outgroup critics), regardless of the amount of experience the foreigner had with Australia. Furthermore, the effects of speaker type on evaluations were mediated by perceptions of the extent to which the criticisms were intended to be constructive but not by perceptions of experience. Finally, Experiment 3 indicated that although experience does not help outgroup critics, a lack of experience can hurt ingroup critics. Recommendations are provided as to how people can reduce defensiveness when making group criticisms.

'You can criticize because you care': Identity attachment, constructiveness, and the intergroup sensitivity effect

Criticism of one's group (e.g. nation, gender, or organization) is typically received in a less defensive way when it stems from another ingroup member than when it stems from an outsider (the intergroup sensitivity effect). We present two experiments demonstrating that this effect is driven not by group membership per se, but by the extent to which critics are perceived to be psychologically invested in the group they are criticizing. In Experiment 1 (N = 117), Australian participants were exposed to criticisms of their country from either other Australians (ingroup critics) or non-Australians (outgroup critics). Furthermore, the ingroup critics were described as having either strong or weak attachment to their Australian identity. Ingroup critics were only received more positively than outgroup critics when they appeared to have a psychological investment in the group. In Experiment 2 (N = 96) we show how outgroup critics (Asian-Australians) can overcome defensiveness among Anglo-Australians by locating themselves within a shared, superordinate identity (Australian). Implications for communication within and between groups are discussed.

"It's OK if we say it, but you can't": responses to intergroup and intragroup criticism

Three experiments were conducted examining group members' responses to criticism from ingroup and outgroup members. In Experiment I a, Australians read scripts of a person making either negative or positive comments about Australia. The speaker was identified as coming from either Australia (ingroup member) or another country (outgroup member). Responses indicated an intergroup sensitivity effect; that is, while ingroup criticisms were tolerated surprisingly well, outgroup criticisms were met with sensitivity and defensiveness. This pattern was replicated using the identity of,university student' (Experiment 1b). Experiment 2 demonstrated that the intergroup sensitivity effect is driven by perceptions that ingroup criticisms are seen to be more legitimate and more constructive than are outgroup criticisms. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for intragroup and intergroup relations. Copyright (C) 2002 John Wiley Sons, Ltd.

Group-directed criticism in Indonesia: Role of message source and audience

Research in individualist cultures has shown that group members are more likely to agree with criticisms of their group when the criticisms are made by another ingroup member as opposed to an outgroup member (the intergroup sensitivity effect). However, evaluations of ingroup critics are often harsher when they take their comments to an outgroup audience. In light of research on facework and tolerance for dissent, it seems important to test whether these effects are generalizable to a collectivist culture. Indonesian Muslims (N = 191) received a criticism of their religion stemming either from another Muslim or a Christian, and published in either a Muslim or a Christian newspaper. Participants agreed with the comments more when they were made by an ingroup as opposed to an outgroup member. Furthermore, consistent with previous research in Australia, the effects of audience on agreement were moderated by levels of group identification. Results are discussed in relation to theory about the functional role internal critics can play in group life.

Effect of storage of achenes of Bidens gardneri Baker on light sensitivity during germination

Bidens gardneri is a very common herbaceous species in the cerrados of the state of São Paulo, whose seeds become light sensitive at 25°C only. Achenes of this species were stored in refrigerator at 4°C and in cerrado soil and in forest soil. The field experiments were carried out in the cerrado at the Reserva Biológica e Estação Experimental de Moji Guaçu, in Moji Guaçu and in the forest of the Instituto de Botânica, in São Paulo, Brazil. Achenes of B. gardneri vary in size and achenes from 7 to 12 mm long were used. Achenes stored for up to 6 months at 4°C showed light sensitivity; after 9 months storage, the difference in germination between light and darkness had disappeared for the smallest and the largest achenes used. Seeds of B. gardneri germinated during the period of storage in soil; the number of germinated seeds increased over the storage time, while the number of intact achenes decreased for the same period, no matter if the experiment was being carried out in the cerrado or in the forest. Therefore, the achenes germinated in soil in darkness. Light sensitivity was lost in intact achenes that had been stored in soil for three months.

Effect of executive compensation on firm performance

The paper finds evidence that the equity-based CEO pay is positively related to firm performance and risk-taking. Both stock price and operating performance as well as firm's riskiness increase in the pay-performance sensitivities (PPS) provided by CEO stock options and stock holdings. PPS can explain stock returns better as an additional factor to the Fama-French 3-factor model. When CEOs are compensated with higher PPS, firms experience higher return on asset (ROA). The higher PPS also leads to the higher risk-taking. While CEO incentive compensation has been perceived mixed on its effectiveness, this study provides support to the equity-based CEO compensation in reducing agency conflicts between CEOs and shareholders.

MICROTUBULES AND RADIATION SENSITIVITY

The object of this work was to study the possibility that microtubule assembly might be involved in radiation sensitivity effect. The proliferating hair follicle was used to study the effects of cooling c-AMP, colcemid, and vincristine on the survival of the hair after irradiation. It was found that after 2 hours of cooling at the rewarming stage of the hair follicles, the sensitivity to irradiation increased and colcemid reversed this effect. c-AMP decreased radiosensitivity and together with colcemid, sensitivity decreased considerably. It is proposed that the assembly of microtubules is sensitive to irradiation.^ Total tubulin in L-P59 tumor measured immediately after irradiation was found to decrease in a dose specific manner after single doses ranging from 500 to 2000 rad. It is proposed that the change in Ca('2+) concentration after irradiation might cause this effect. Irradiation inhibited the increase in specific viscosity of 3x and 1x tubulin irradiated at the time of assembly. A small reduction in specific viscosity was found when polymerized microtubules were irradiated.^ From these experiments it is proposed that the assembly of microtubules is affected by irradiation. It may be the result of an increase in CA('2+) concentration in the tissue after irradiation or an inactivation of the initiation centers. The effects of irradiation on unassembled tubulin or assembled microtubules is negligible. ^

Suppressing the negative effect of devaluation on group identification: The role of intergroup differentiation and intragroup respect

We examined (N = 76) how social creativity strategies such as intergroup differentiation and intragroup respect suppress the negative impact of threat to an ingroup's value on group identification. Threat was manipulated through false feedback concerning how other groups perceived an ingroup. Both intergroup differentiation and intragroup respect were higher when participants learned that the ingroup was devalued compared to when it was valued. Mediational analyses demonstrated that these factors suppressed the direct negative relationship between value threat and group identification. Discussion focused on the consequences of these social creativity strategies for group identification and collective action. (C) 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Effect of+3.00 diopter and+4.00 diopter additions in multifocal intraocular lenses on defocus profiles, patient satisfaction, and contrast sensitivity

PURPOSE: To evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the new low-addition (add) (+3.00 diopter [D]) ReSTOR multifocal IOL compared with the preceding ReSTOR model with +4.00 D add. SETTING: University Eye Hospital, Tuebingen, Germany. DESIGN: Comparative case series. METHODS: Patients with a +3.00 D or +4.00 D add multifocal IOL were examined for uncorrected and distance-corrected visual acuity at distance, intermediate, and near. A defocus profile was assessed, individual reading distance and the distance for lowest intermediate visual acuity were determined. Patient satisfaction was evaluated with a standardized questionnaire. Contrast sensitivity was tested under mesopic and photopic conditions. RESULTS: Uncorrected and distance-corrected intermediate visual acuities were statistically significantly better in the +3.00 D add group (24 eyes) than in the +4.00 D add group (30 eyes); distance and near visual acuities were not different between groups. The defocus profile significantly varied between groups. The +4.00 D add group had a closer reading distance (33.0 cm) than the +3.00 D add group (43.5 cm), a closer point of lowest intermediate visual acuity (65.8 cm versus 86.9 cm) and worse lowest intermediate visual acuity (20/59 +/- 4.5 letters [SD] versus 20/48 +/- 5.5 letters). Thus, patients in the +3.00 D add group reported being more satisfied with intermediate visual acuity. The +3.00 D add group reported more glare but less halos than the +4.00 D add group; contrast sensitivity was not different. CONCLUSION: The lower addition resulted in a narrower defocus profile, a farther reading distance, and better intermediate visual acuity and thus increased patient satisfaction.

Effect of Rosiglitazone on Insulin Sensitivity and Body Composition in Type 2 Diabetic Patients

Objective: To investigate the effects of rosiglitazone (RSG) on insulin sensitivity and regional adiposity (including intrahepatic fat) in patients with type 2 diabetes. Research Methods and Procedures: We examined the effect of RSG (8 mg/day, 2 divided doses) compared with placebo on insulin sensitivity and body composition in 33 type 2 diabetic patients. Measurements of insulin sensitivity (euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp), body fat (abdominal magnetic resonance imaging and DXA), and liver fat (magnetic resonance spectroscopy) were taken at baseline and repeated after 16 weeks of treatment. Results: There was a significant improvement in glycemic control (glycosylated hemoglobin -0.7 +/- 0.7%, p less than or equal to 0.05) and an 86% increase in insulin sensitivity in the RSG group (glucose-disposal rate change from baseline: 17.5 +/- 14.5 mumol glucose/min/kg free fat mass, P < 0.05), but no significant change in the placebo group compared with baseline. Total body weight and fat mass increased (p &LE; 0.05) with RSG (2.1 +/- 2.0 kg and 1.4 +/- 1.6 kg, respectively) with 95% of the increase in adiposity occurring in nonabdominal regions. In the abdominal region, RSG increased subcutaneous fat area by 8% (25.0 +/- 28.7 cm(2), p = 0.02), did not alter intra-abdominal fat area, and reduced intrahepatic fat levels by 45% (-6.7 +/- 9.7%, concentration relative to water). Discussion: Our data indicate that RSG greatly improves insulin sensitivity in patients with type 2 diabetes and is associated with an increase in adiposity in subcutaneous but not visceral body regions.

The Effect Of Induced Intraocular Straylight (cataract Simulation) On Sensitivity Measures Of Standard Automated Perimetry, Pulsar Perimetry And Moorfields Motion Displacement Test

Purpose: To investigate the effect of incremental increases in intraocular straylight on threshold measurements made by three modern forms of perimetry: Standard Automated Perimetry (SAP) using Octopus (Dynamic, G-Pattern), Pulsar Perimetry (PP) (TOP, 66 points) and the Moorfields Motion Displacement Test (MDT) (WEBS, 32 points).Methods: Four healthy young observers were recruited (mean age 26yrs [25yrs, 28yrs]), refractive correction [+2 D, -4.25D]). Five white opacity filters (WOF), each scattering light by different amounts were used to create incremental increases in intraocular straylight (IS). Resultant IS values were measured with each WOF and at baseline (no WOF) for each subject using a C-Quant Straylight Meter (Oculus, Wetzlar, Germany). A 25 yr old has an IS value of ~0.85 log(s). An increase of 40% in IS to 1.2log(s) corresponds to the physiological value of a 70yr old. Each WOFs created an increase in IS between 10-150% from baseline, ranging from effects similar to normal aging to those found with considerable cataract. Each subject underwent 6 test sessions over a 2-week period; each session consisted of the 3 perimetric tests using one of the five WOFs and baseline (both instrument and filter were randomised).Results: The reduction in sensitivity from baseline was calculated. A two-way ANOVA on mean change in threshold (where subjects were treated as rows in the block and each increment in fog filters was treated as column) was used to examine the effect of incremental increases in straylight. Both SAP (p<0.001) and Pulsar (p<0.001) were significantly affected by increases in straylight. The MDT (p=0.35) remained comparatively robust to increases in straylight.Conclusions: The Moorfields MDT measurement of threshold is robust to effects of additional straylight as compared to SAP and PP.