Quantification of soluble fibre in feedstuffs for rabbits and evaluation of the interference between the determinations of soluble fibre and intestinal mucin.

This work compared the quantification of soluble fibre in feeds using different chemical and in vitro approaches, and studied the potential interference between soluble fibre and mucin determinations. Six ingredients: sugar beet pulp (SBP), SBP pectins, insoluble SBP, wheat straw, sunflower hulls and lignocellulose, and seven rabbit diets, differing in soluble fibre content, were evaluated. In experiment 1, ingredients and diets were analyzed for total dietary fibre (TDF), insoluble dietary fibre (IDF), soluble dietary fibre (SDF), aNDFom (corrected for protein, aNDFom-cp) and 2-step pepsin/pancreatin in vitro DM indigestibility (corrected for ash and protein, ivDMi2). Soluble fibre was estimated by difference using three procedures: TDF?IDF (SDFIDF), TDF?ivDMi2 (SDFivDMi2), and TDF?aNDFom-cp (SDFaNDFom-cp). Soluble fibre determined directly (SDF) or by difference as SDFivDMi2 were not different (109 g/kg DM, on average). However, when it was calculated as SDFaNDFom-cp the value was 40% higher (153 g/kg DM, P menor que 0.05), whereas SDFIDF (124 g/kg DM) did not differ from any of the other methods. The correlation between the four methods was high (r ? 0.96; P ? 0.001; n = 13), but it decreased or even disappeared when SBP pectins and SBP were excluded and a lower and more narrow range of variation of soluble fibre was used. In experiment 2, the ivDMi2 using crucibles (reference method) were compared to those made using individual or collective ankom bags in order to simplify the determination of SDFivDMi2. The ivDMi2 was not different when using crucibles or individual or collective ankom bags. In experiment 3, the potential interference between soluble fibre and intestinal mucin determinations was studied using rabbit intestinal raw mucus, digesta and SBP pectins, lignocelluloses and a rabbit diet. An interference was observed between the determinations of soluble fibre and crude mucin, as contents of TDF and apparent crude mucin were high in SBP pectins (994 and 709 g/kg DM) and rabbit intestinal raw mucus (571 and 739 g/kg DM). After a pectinase treatment, the coefficient of apparent mucin recovery of SBP pectins was close to zero, whereas that of rabbit mucus was not modified. An estimation of the crude mucin carbohydrates retained in digesta TDF is proposed to correct TDF and soluble fibre digestibility. In conclusion, the values of soluble fibre depend on the methodology used. The contamination of crude mucin with soluble fibre is avoided using pectinase.

The Aedes aegypti larval transcriptome: a comparative perspective with emphasis on trypsins and the domain structure of peritrophins

The genome sequence of Aedes aegypti was recently reported. A significant amount of Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs) were sequenced to aid in the gene prediction process. In the present work we describe an integrated analysis of the genomic and EST data, focusing on genes with preferential expression in larvae (LG), adults (AG) and in both stages (SG). A total of 913 genes (5.4% of the transcript complement) are LG, including ion transporters and cuticle proteins that are important for ion homeostasis and defense. From a starting set of 245 genes encoding the trypsin domain, we identified 66 putative LG, AG, and SG trypsins by manual curation. Phylogenetic analyses showed that AG trypsins are divergent from their larval counterparts (LG), grouping with blood-induced trypsins from Anopheles gambiae and Simulium vittatum. These results support the hypothesis that blood-feeding arose only once, in the ancestral Culicomorpha. Peritrophins are proteins that interlock chitin fibrils to form the peritrophic membrane (PM) that compartmentalizes the food in the midgut. These proteins are recognized by having chitin-binding domains with 6 conserved Cys and may also present mucin-like domains (regions expected to be highly O-glycosylated). PM may be formed by a ring of cells (type 2, seen in Ae. aegypti larvae and Drosophila melanogaster) or by most midgut cells (type 1, found in Ae. aegypti adult and Tribolium castaneum). LG and D. melanogaster peritrophins have more complex domain structures than AG and T. castaneum peritrophins. Furthermore, mucin-like domains of peritrophins from T. castaneum (feeding on rough food) are lengthier than those of adult Ae. aegypti (blood-feeding). This suggests, for the first time, that type 1 and type 2 PM may have variable molecular architectures determined by different peritrophins and/or ancillary proteins, which may be partly modulated by diet.

Identification of the method to quantify soluble fibre and the effect of the source of fibre on the ileal and faecal digestibility of soluble and insoluble fibre in rabbits = Identificación del método para cuantificar la fibra soluble y el efecto de la fuente de fibra en la digestibilidad ileal y fecal de la fibra soluble e insoluble en conejos

La presente tesis constituye un avance en el estudio de los métodos para cuantificar la fibra soluble y los efectos de las fracciones de fibra y las fuentes de fibra sobre la digestión de las diferentes fracciones de fibra (soluble e insoluble) en el conejo. Hay un efecto positivo de la fibra soluble sobre la salud intestinal de los conejos y, por ende, una reducción de la mortalidad en animales destetados. Pese a esto, no está claro si estos efectos se deben específicamente a la fracción soluble. Por lo que los objetivos generales de esta tesis fueron: 1) comparar diferentes metodologías químicas e in vitro para cuantificar la fibra soluble y estudiar las posibles interferencias en la cuantificación de la fibra soluble por las mucinas, y viceversa, 2) determinar los efectos de la fibra, el lugar de fermentación, el método para valorar la fibra soluble e insoluble, y la corrección de la fibra soluble por el contenido intestinal de mucinas sobre la digestibilidad de las distintas fracciones de la fibra y 3) evaluar los efectos individuales de las fracciones soluble e insoluble de la fibra de pulpa de remolacha y de manzana, sobre la digestibilidad de la fibra soluble e insoluble y los parámetros digestivos. Para ello se llevaron a cabo 4 estudios. En el primer estudio se compararon diferentes metodologías químicas e in vitro para valorar la fibra soluble de diferentes alimentos y se estudió la posible interferencia en la determinación de la fibra soluble y mucinas. Para ello se utilizaron seis ingredientes (pulpa de remolacha, pectinas de pulpa de remolacha, pulpa de remolacha lavada, paja de cereal, cascarilla de girasol y lignocelulosa) y siete piensos de conejos con diferentes niveles de fibra soluble. En un primer experimento se analizó la fibra dietética total (FDT), la fibra dietética insoluble (FDI), la fibra dietética soluble (FDS), la fibra neutro detergente corregida por cenizas y proteínas (aFNDmo-pb), y la digestibilidad in vitro 2 pasos pepsina/pancreatina (residuo corregido por cenizas y proteína, ivMSi2) de los ingredientes y piensos. Además la fibra soluble se calculó mediante la diferencia entre FDT-FDI (FDSFDI), FDT- ivMSi2 (FDSivMSi2), y FDT - aFNDmo-pb (FDSaFNDmo-pb). Cuando la fibra soluble se determinó directamente como FDS o se calculó como FDT-FDI no se observaron diferencias (109 g/kg MS, en promedio). Sin embargo, cuando la fibra soluble se calculó como FDT - aFNDmo-pb su valor fue un 40% menor (153 g/kg MS. P < 0,05), mientras que la FDSFDI (124 g/kg MS) no fue diferente a ninguna de las otras metodologías. La correlación entre los tres métodos fue elevada (r > 0,96. P < 0,001. n = 13), pero disminuyó o incluso desapareció cuando la pulpa o las pectinas de la remolacha fueron excluidas del análisis. En un segundo experimento, se comparó el método ivDMi2 usando crisoles (método de referencia) con una modificación del mismo usando bolsas ANKOM digeridas individualmente o en colectivo para simplificar la determinación de la FDSivMSi2. La FDSivMSi2 no difirió entre los métodos comparados. En un tercer experimento, se analizó la posible interferencia entre la determinación de la fibra soluble y las mucinas intestinales. Se observó un contenido de FDT y de mucinas elevado en las muestras de pectinas de remolacha (994 y 709 g/kg MS), así como en el moco intestinal de conejo (571 y 739 g/kg MS) cuando se aplicó el método de mucinas por precipitación con etanol. Sin embargo, después de aplicar una pectinasa en el material precipitado, la cantidad de mucinas recuperadas en las muestras de pectinas de remolacha fue cercana a cero, mientras que en el moco intestinal fue similar a los resultados previos al uso de la enzima. Con los resultados de este ensayo se estimaron los carbohidratos de mucinas retenidos en los contenidos digestivos y se propuso una corrección para la determinación de la digestibilidad de la FDT y fibra soluble. En conclusión, la contaminación de las mucinas de la digesta con fibra soluble se soluciona usando pectinasas. El segundo estudio se centró en estudiar: 1) el efecto del tipo de fibra, 2) el sitio de fermentación, 3) el método para cuantificar fibra y 4) la corrección por mucinas sobre la digestibilidad de la fibra. Para ello se formularon tres piensos con diferentes niveles de fibra soluble (FDT-aFNDmo-pb). Un pienso bajo en fibra soluble (LSF. 85 g/kg DM), un pienso medio en fibra soluble (MSF. 102 g/kg DM), y un pienso alto en fibra soluble (HSF. 145 g/kg DM). Estos piensos se obtuvieron reemplazando un 50% del heno del alfalfa en el pienso MSF por una mezcla de pulpa de manzana y remolacha (HSF) o por una mezcla de cascarilla de avena y proteína de soja (LSF). Se utilizaron 30 conejas canuladas para determinar la digestibilidad ileal y fecal. La digestibilidad cecal se calculó mediante diferencia entre la digestibilidad fecal e ileal. La fibra insoluble se determinó como aFNDmo-pb, IDF, e ivMSi2, mientras que la fibra soluble se calculó como FDSFDI, FDSaFNDmo-pb, y FDSivMSi2. La digestibilidad de la FDT y la fibra soluble se corrigieron por las mucinas. La concentración de mucinas en la digesta ileal y fecal, aumento desde el grupo LSF hasta el grupo con el pienso HSF (P < 0,01). La corrección por mucinas aumentó las digestibilidades de la FDT y la fibra soluble a nivel ileal, mientras que a nivel cecal las redujo. (P < 0.01). El coeficiente de digestibilidad ileal de FDT aumentó desde el grupo LSF al grupo HSF (0,12 vs. 0,281. P < 0,01), sin diferencias en el coeficiente de digestibilidad cecal (0,264), por lo que la tendencia a nivel fecal entre los grupos se mantuvo. El coeficiente de digestibilidad ileal de la fibra insoluble aumento desde el grupo con el pienso LSF al grupo con el pienso HSF (0,113 vs. 0,210. P < 0,01), sin diferencias a nivel cecal (0,139) y sin efecto del método usado, resultando en una digestibilidad elevada a nivel fecal, con tendencias similares a las observadas a nivel ileal. El coeficiente de digestibilidad de la FND fue elevada en comparación con la FDI o la ivMSi2 (P > 0.01). El coeficiente de la digestibilidad ileal de la fibra soluble fue mayor en el grupo LSF respecto al grupo LSF (0,436 vs. 0,145. P < 0,01) y el método no afectó a esta determinación. El coeficiente de la digestibilidad cecal de la fibra soluble se redujo desde el grupo LSF hasta el grupo HSF (0,721 vs. 0,492. P < 0,05). El valor más bajo de digestibilidad cecal y fecal de fibra soluble fue medido con el método FDSaFNDmo-pb (P < 0,01). Se observó una alta correlación entre las digestibilidades de la fibra soluble determinada como FDSFDI, FDSaFNDmo-pb, y FDSivMSi2, por lo tanto la información proporcionada por una u otra metodología fueron similares. Sin embargo, cuando se compararon con efectos fisiológicos (producción de mucinas y peso del ciego y pH del ciego de un trabajo previo), la FDSaFNDmo-pb globalmente mostró estar mejor correlacionado con estos parámetros fisiológicos. En conclusión, la corrección por mucinas es necesaria para determinar la digestibilidad ileal de la FDT y fibra soluble, mientras que la elección de uno u otro método es menos relevante. La inclusión de pulpa de manzana y remolacha incrementa la cantidad de FDT que desaparece antes de llegar al ciego. En el tercer estudio se estudió el efecto de la fracción fibrosa soluble e insoluble de la pulpa de remolacha y el método de cuantificación de la fibra soluble e insoluble sobre la digestibilidad de la fibra y algunos parámetros digestivos. Para ello se formularon cuatro piensos con niveles similares de fibra insoluble (315g aFNDmo-pb/kg MS) y proteína (167 g/kg MS). El pienso control contuvo el nivel más bajo de fibra soluble (30,3 g/kg, con cascarilla de girasol y paja como fuente de fibra). Un segundo pienso se obtuvo mediante la sustitución de 60 g de almidón/kg del pienso control por pectinas de remolacha (82,9 g fibra soluble/kg MS). Los otras dos piensos resultaron de la sustitución parcial de las fuentes de fibra del pienso control por la fracción insoluble de la pulpa de remolacha y la pulpa de remolacha entera (42.2 y 82.3 g fibra soluble/kg MS, respectivamente). Cincuenta y seis conejos en cebo (14/pienso), de 2,4  0.21 kg de peso, fueron usados para determinar la digestibilidad ileal y fecal de la FDT, FDI, aFNDmo-pb, FDSFDI, y FDSaFNDmo-pb. La concentración de mucinas en el íleon y heces se utilizaron para corregir la digestibilidad de la FDT y fibra soluble. También se midió el peso de diferentes segmentos del tracto digestivo y el pH del contenido digestivo. Los conejos alimentados con el pienso de fibra insoluble de pulpa de remolacha mostraron los consumos más bajos con respecto a los demás grupos (124 vs. 139 g/d, respectivamente. P < 0,05). El flujo de mucinas ileales fue más alto (P < 0.05) en el grupo alimentado con el pienso de pectinas de remolacha (9,0 g/d en promedio) que los del grupo control (4,79 g/d), mostrando los otros dos grupos valores intermedios, sin detectarse diferencias a nivel fecal. La digestibilidad ileal de la FDT (corregida por mucinas) y la fibra insoluble no se vieron afectadas por el tipo de pienso. El método usado para determinar la fibra insoluble afectó su digestibilidad ileal (0,123 para FDI vs. 0,108 para aFNDmo-pb. P < 0.01). De todas formas, los métodos no afectaron al cálculo de la fibra fermentada antes del ciego (4,9 g/d en promedio). Los conejos alimentados con el pienso de pulpa de remolacha y con el pienso con la fracción insoluble de la pulpa de remolacha mostraron las digestibilidades fecales más altas de la fibra insoluble (0,266 en promedio vs. 0,106 del grupo control), mientras que en los animales del pienso con pectinas esta digestibilidad fue un 47% mayor respecto al pienso control (P < 0,001). La digestibilidad fecal de la fibra insoluble fue un 20% más alta cuando se usó la FND en lugar de FDI para determinarla (P < 0.001). Esto hizo variar la cantidad de fibra insoluble fermentada a lo largo del tracto digestivo (9,5 ó 7,5 g/d cuando fue calculada como FDI o aFNDmo-pb, respectivamente. P < 0,001). Las digestibilidades ileales de la fibra soluble fueron positivas cuando los análisis de fibra soluble de los contenidos ileales fueron corregidos por mucinas, (P < 0,001) excepto para la digestibilidad ileal de la FDSIDF del grupo control. Una vez corregidas por mucinas, los conejos alimentados con los piensos que contuvieron la fracción soluble de la pulpa de remolacha (pienso de pectina y pulpa de remolacha) mostraron una mayor digestibilidad ileal de la fibra soluble, respecto al grupo control (0,483 vs. -0,010. P = 0.002), mientras que el grupo del pienso de fibra insoluble de pulpa de remolacha mostró un valor intermedio (0,274). La digestibilidad total de la fibra soluble fue similar entre todos los grupos (0.93). Los conejos alimentados con pulpa de remolacha y su fracción insoluble mostraron los pesos relativos más altos del estómago respecto a los del pienso control y de pectinas (11 y 56 % respectivamente; P < 0,05). Por otra parte, el peso relativo del ciego aumentó en los animales que consumieron tanto la fracción soluble como insoluble de la pulpa de remolacha, siendo un 16% más pesados (P < 0,001) que el grupo control. El pH del contenido cecal fue más bajo en los animales del grupo de pulpa de remolacha que en los del grupo control (5,64 vs. 6,03; P < 0,001), mientras que los del grupo de pectinas y de fibra insoluble de pulpa de remolacha mostraron valores intermedios. En conclusión, el efecto positivo de la pulpa de remolacha en el flujo de mucinas a nivel ileal se debe a la fracción soluble e insoluble de la pulpa de remolacha. La mitad de la fibra soluble de la pulpa de remolacha desaparece antes de llegar al ciego, independientemente si esta proviene de pectinas puras o de la pulpa de remolacha. El pH cecal esta mejor correlacionado con la cantidad de FDT que desaparece antes del ciego más que con la que se degrada en el ciego. En el último estudio se estudiaron los efectos de la fibra soluble e insoluble de la pulpa de manzana sobre la digestibilidad de la fibra y algunos parámetros digestivos. Cuatro dietas fueron formuladas con niveles similares de fibra insoluble (aFNDmo-pb 32,4%) y proteína (18,6% ambos en base seca). El pienso control contuvo el nivel más bajo de fibra soluble (46 g de fibra soluble/kg, con cascarilla de girasol y paja de cereales como la fuentes de fibra). Un segundo pienso fue obtenido mediante la sustitución de 60 g de almidón/kg del pienso control por pectinas de manzana (105 g fibra soluble/kg). Los otros dos piensos se obtuvieron por la substitución de parte de las fuentes de fibra del pienso control por pulpa de manzana o pulpa de manzana despectinizada (93 y 71 g de fibra soluble/kg, respectivamente). La digestibilidad fecal fue determinada en 23 conejos/pienso con 1.68 ± 0.23 kg de peso vivo, los cuales fueron sacrificados a los 60 d edad para recolectar su contenido digestivo para determinar digestibilidad ileal y otros parámetros digestivos. La fibra soluble de manzana (pectinas y pulpa entera) estimuló el flujo ileal de mucinas (P = 0,002), pero no asi la pulpa despectinizada. La corrección por mucinas incrementó la digestibilidad de la FDT y la fibra soluble a nivel fecal, y especialmente a nivel ileal. Cerca de la mitad de la fibra soluble proveniente de los piensos con cualquiera de las fracciones de la pulpa de manzana fue degradada a nivel ileal, sin mostrar diferencias entre los grupos (46 y 86% en promedio a nivel ileal y fecal respectivamente). La inclusión de pulpa despectinizada de manzana mejoró la digestibilidad de la FND a nivel fecal (P < 0,05) pero no a nivel ileal. El contenido cecal de los conejos alimentados con la pulpa de manzana tuvieron el pH cecal más ácido que los del pienso control (5,55 vs. 5,95. P < 0,001), mientras que los animales con el pienso de pectinas de manzana y de pulpa de manzana despectinizada mostraron valores intermedios. En conclusión los efectos positivo de la pulpa de manzana en el flujo de mucinas se debió principalmente a la fracción soluble de la pulpa de manzana. La mitad de la fibra soluble fue degradada antes del ciego independientemente de si esta provino de las pectinas o de la pulpa de manzana. El pH cecal estuvo mejor correlacionado con la cantidad de FDT fermentada en todo el tracto digestivo y antes de llegar al ciego que con la que se degradó en el ciego. Al integrar los resultados de los estudio 2, 3 y 4 se concluyó que la corrección de mucinas de los contenidos digestivos al determinar FDT y fibra soluble es necesaria para ajustar los cálculos de su digestibilidad. Esta corrección es mucho más importante a nivel ileal y en dietas bajas en fibra soluble. Por otra parte, la FDT desapareció en proporciones importantes antes de llegar al ciego, especialmente en piensos que contienen pulpa de remolacha o de manzana o alguna fracción soluble o insoluble de las mismas y estas diferencias observadas entre los piensos a nivel ileal se correlacionaron mejor con el pH cecal, lo que indicaría que la FDT se solubilizó antes de llegar al ciego y una vez en esté fermentó. Estos resultados implican que determinar la fibra soluble como FDSaFNDmo-pb es la mejor opción y que en la determinación de la digestibilidad de la FDT y fibra soluble se debe considerar la corrección por mucinas especialmente a nivel ileal y en piensos bajos en fibra soluble. ABSTRACT The present thesis constitutes a step forward in advancing the knowledge of the methods to quantify soluble fibre and the effects of the fibre fractions and source of fibre on the site the digestion of different fractions of fibre (soluble and insoluble) in the rabbit. There is a positive effect of soluble fibre on rabbit digestive health and therefore on the reduction of mortality in weaning rabbits. Nevertheless, it is no so clear that the effects of soluble fibre on rabbits are due particularly to this fraction. This thesis aims: 1) to compare the quantification of soluble fibre in feeds using different chemical and in vitro approaches, and to study the potential interference between soluble fibre and mucin determinations, 2) to identify the effects of type of fibre, site of fermentation, method to quantify insoluble and soluble fibre, and correction of the intestinal soluble fibre content for intestinal mucin on the digestibility of fibre fractions and 3) to evaluate the individual effect of soluble and insoluble fibre from sugar beet pulp and apple pulp on ileal and faecal soluble and insoluble digestibility and digestive traits. These objectives were developed in four studies: The first study compared the quantification of soluble fibre in feeds using different chemical and in vitro approaches, and studied the potential interference between soluble fibre and mucin determinations. Six ingredients, sugar beet pulp (SBP), SBP pectins, insoluble SBP, wheat straw, sunflower hulls and lignocellulose, and seven rabbit diets, differing in soluble fibre content, were evaluated. In experiment 1, ingredients and diets were analysed for total dietary fibre (TDF), insoluble dietary fibre (IDF), soluble dietary fibre (SDF), aNDFom (corrected for protein, aNDFom-cp) and 2-step pepsin/pancreatin in vitro DM indigestibility (corrected for ash and protein, ivDMi2). Soluble fibre was estimated by difference using three procedures: TDF - IDF (SDFIDF), TDF - ivDMi2 (SDFivDMi2), and TDF - aNDFom-cp (SDFaNDFom-cp). Soluble fibre determined directly (SDF) or by difference, as SDFivDMi2 were not different (109 g/kg DM, on average). However, when it was calculated as SDFaNDFom-cp the value was 40% higher (153 g/kg DM, P < 0.05), whereas SDFIDF (124 g/kg DM) did not differ from any of the other methods. The correlation between the four methods was high (r ≥ 0.96. P ≤ 0.001. n = 13), but it decreased or even disappeared when SBP pectins and SBP were excluded and a lower and more narrow range of variation of soluble fibre was used. In experiment 2, the ivDMi2 using crucibles (reference method) were compared to those made using individual or collective ankom bags in order to simplify the determination of SDFivDMi2. The ivDMi2 was not different when using crucibles or individual or collective ankom bags. In experiment 3, the potential interference between soluble fibre and intestinal mucin determinations was studied using rabbit intestinal raw mucus, digesta and SBP pectins, lignocelluloses and a rabbit diet. An interference was observed between the determinations of soluble fibre and crude mucin, as the content of TDF and apparent crude mucin were high in SBP pectins (994 and 709 g/kg DM) and rabbit intestinal raw mucus (571 and 739 g/kg DM). After a pectinase treatment, the coefficient of apparent mucin recovery of SBP pectins was close to zero, whereas that of rabbit mucus was not modified. An estimation of the crude mucin carbohydrates retained in digesta TDF is proposed to correct TDF and soluble fibre digestibility. In conclusion, the values of soluble fibre depend on the methodology used. The contamination of crude mucin with soluble fibre is avoided using pectinase. The second study focused on the effect of type of fibre, site of fermentation, method for quantifying insoluble and soluble dietary fibre, and their correction for intestinal mucin on fibre digestibility. Three diets differing in soluble fibre were formulated (85 g/kg DM soluble fibre, in the low soluble fibre [LSF] diet; 102 g/kg DM in the medium soluble fibre [MSF] diet; and 145 g/kg DM in the high soluble fibre [HSF] diet). They were obtained by replacing half of the dehydrated alfalfa in the MSF diet with a mixture of beet and apple pulp (HSF diet) or with a mix of oat hulls and soybean protein (LSF diet). Thirty rabbits with ileal T-cannulas were used to determine total tract apparent digestibility (CTTAD) and ileal apparent digestibility (CIAD). Caecal digestibility was determined by difference between CTTAD and CIAD. Insoluble fibre was measured as aNDFom-cp, IDF, and ivDMi2, whereas soluble fibre was calculated as SDFaNDFom-cp, SDFIDF, SDFivDMi2. The intestinal mucin content was used to correct the TDF and soluble fibre digestibility. Ileal and faecal concentration of mucin increased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (P < 0.01). Once corrected for intestinal mucin, The CTTAD and CIAD of TDF and soluble fibre increased whereas caecal digestibility decreased (P < 0.01). The CIAD of TDF increased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (0.12 vs. 0.281. P < 0.01), with no difference in the caecal digestibility (0.264), resulting in a higher CTTAD from the LSF to the HSF diet group (P < 0.01). The CIAD of insoluble fibre increased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (0.113 vs. 0.21. P < 0.01), with no difference in the caecal digestibility (0.139) and no effect of fibre method, resulting in a higher CTTAD for rabbits fed the HSF diet compared with the MSF and LSF diets groups (P < 0.01). The CTTAD of aNDFom-cp was higher compared with IDF or ivDMi2 (P < 0.01). The CIAD of soluble fibre was higher for the HSF than for the LSF diet group (0.436 vs. 0.145. P < 0.01) and fibre method did not affect it. Caecal soluble fibre digestibility decreased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (0.721 vs. 0.492. P < 0.05). The lowest caecal and faecal soluble fibre digestibility was measured using SDFaNDFom-cp (P < 0.01). There was a high correlation among the digestibilities of soluble fibre measured as SDFaNDFom-cp, SDFIDF, and SDFivDMi2. Therefore, these methodologies provide similar information. However, the method that seems to be globally better related to the physiological traits (ileal flow of mucins, and relative weight of the caecum and caecal pH from previous work) was the SDFaNDFom-cp. In conclusion, a correction for intestinal mucin is necessary for ileal TDF and soluble fibre digestibility whereas the selection of the fibre method has a minor relevance. The inclusion of sugar beet and apple pulp increased the amount of TDF fermented in the small intestine. The third study examined the effect of fibre fractions of sugar beet pulp (SBP) and the method for quantifying soluble and insoluble fibre on soluble and insoluble fibre digestibility and digestive traits. Four diets were formulated with similar level of insoluble fibre (aNDFom-cp: 315 g/kg DM) and protein (167 g/kg DM). Control diet contained the lowest level of soluble fibre (30.3 g/kg DM, including sunflower hulls and straw as sole sources of fibre). A second diet was obtained by replacing 60 g starch/kg of control diet with SBP pectins (82.9 g soluble fibre/kg DM). Two more diets were obtained by replacing part of the fibrous sources of the control diet with either insoluble SBP fibre or SBP (42.2 and 82.3 g soluble fibre/kg DM, respectively). Fifty six (14/diet) rabbits weighing 2.40  0.213 kg were used to determine faecal and ileal digestibility of total dietary fibre (TDF), insoluble dietary fibre (IDF), neutral detergent fibre corrected for ash and CP (aNDFom-cp) and soluble fibre estimated as SDFaNDFom-cp and SDFIDF. Faecal and ileal mucin content was used to correct TDF and soluble fibre digestibility. It was also recorded weight of digestive segments and digesta pH. Rabbits fed insoluble SBP showed the lowest feed intake with respect to the other 3 diets (124 vs. 139 g/d, respectively. P < 0.05). Ileal mucin flow was higher (P < 0.05) in animals fed pectin and SBP diets (9.0 g/d, as average) than those fed control diet (4.79 g/d), showing InsSBP group an intermediate value. No differences on mucin content were detected at faecal level. There was no diet effect on the CIAD of TDF (corrected for mucin) and insoluble fibre. Fibre methodology influenced the CIAD of insoluble fibre (0.123 for IDF vs. 0.108 for aNDFom-cp. P < 0.01). Anyway, the amount of insoluble fibre fermented before the caecum did not differ between both methods (4.9 g/d, on average). Rabbits fed insoluble SBP and SBP diets showed the highest CTTAD of insoluble fibre (0.266 on average vs. 0.106 for control group), whereas those fed pectin diet had an intermediate value (0.106. P < 0.001). The CTTAD of insoluble fibre measured with IDF was higher than that measured with aNDFom-cp (by 20%. P < 0.001). It led that the amount of insoluble fibre fermented along the digestive tract were different (9.5 or 7.5 g/d when calculated as IDF or aNDFom-cp, respectively; P < 0.001). When the CIAD of soluble fibre was corrected for mucin they became positive (P < 0.001) except for control group measured as SDFIDF. Once corrected for mucin content, rabbits fed soluble fibre from SBP (pectin and SBP groups) showed higher CIAD of soluble fibre than control group (0.483 vs. -0.019. respectively), whereas the value for insoluble SBP group was intermediate 0.274. The CTTAD of soluble fibre (mucin corrected) was similar among diets 0.93. Rabbits fed with SBP and insoluble SBP diets showed higher total digestive tract and stomach relative weight than those fed pectin and control diets (by 11 and 56 %. respectively, P < 0.05). The caecal relative weight did not differ in rabbits fed pectin, insoluble SBP, and SBP diets (62 g/kg BW, as average) and they were on average 16% higher (P < 0.001) than in control group. Caecal content of rabbits fed SBP diet was more acid than those fed control diet (5.64 vs. 6.03. P < 0.001), whereas those from pectin and insoluble SBP diets showed intermediate values. In conclusion, the positive effect of SBP fibre on ileal mucin flow was due to both its soluble and insoluble fibre fraction. Half of the soluble SBP fibre was degraded before the caecum independently it came from pectin or SBP. The caecal pH correlated better with the ileal amount of fermented TDF in the digestive tract rather than with that fermented in the caecum. The last study examined the effect of soluble and insoluble fibre of apple pulp on fibre digestibility and digestive traits. Four diets were formulated with similar level of insoluble fibre (aNDFom-cp: 324 g/kg DM) and protein (18.6 g/kg DM). Control diet contained the lowest level of soluble fibre (46 g soluble fibre/kg DM, including oat hulls and straw as sole sources of fibre). A second diet was obtained by replacing 60 g starch/kg of control diet with apple pectins (105 g soluble fibre/kg DM). Two more diets were obtained by substituting part of the fibrous sources of the control diet by either apple pulp or depectinized apple pulp (93 and 71 g soluble fibre/kg, respectively). The CTTAD was determined in 23 rabbits/diet weighing 1.68  0.23 kg BW, and 23 rabbits/diet were slaughtered at 60 d of age to collect ileal digesta to determine CIAD and record other digestive traits. Soluble fibre from apple stimulated ileal flow of mucin (P = 0.002), but depectinized apple pulp did not. The correction for mucin increased the digestibility of crude protein, total dietary fibre, and soluble fibre at faecal, but especially at ileal level, depending in this case on the diet. Around half of the soluble fibre in diets containing any fibre fraction from apple was degraded at ileal level, with no differences among these diets (0.46 vs. 0.066 for control group, P=0.046). Faecal soluble fibre digestibility was 0.86 on average for all groups). Inclusion of the apple insoluble fibre improved NDF digestibility at faecal (0.222 vs. 0.069. P < 0.05) but not at ileal level. Caecal content of rabbits fed apple pulp diet was more acid than those fed control diet (5.55 vs. 5.95. P < 0.001), whereas those from pectin and depectinised apple pulp diets showed intermediate values. In conclusion, the positive effect of apple fibre on ileal mucin flow was mainly due to its soluble fibre fraction. Half of the soluble apple fibre was degraded before the caecum independently it came from pectin or apple pulp. The caecal pH correlated better with the total and ileal amount of fermented TDF in the digestive tract rather than with that fermented in the caecum. The results obtained in the studies 2, 3 and 4 were considered together. These results showed that the mucin correction is necessary when the TDF and soluble fibre digestibility is determined, and it correction is more important at ileal level and in diets with low level of soluble fibre. On another hand, incrementing the soluble fibre using sugar beet and apple pulp increased the amount of TDF disappear before the caecum. Moreover, the caecal pH correlated better with the ileal amount of fermented TDF in the digestive tract rather than with that fermented in the caecum. This suggests that an ileal fibre solubilisation may occur rather than ileal fermentation. Therefore the implications of this work were that: the estimation of soluble fibre as SDFaNDFom-cp is an adequate method considering its correlation with the physiological effects; and the TDF and soluble fibre digestibility must be corrected with intestinal mucins, especially when the ileal digestibility is determined.

Effect of type of fiber, site of fermentation, and method of analysis on digestibility of soluble and insoluble fiber in rabbits

The effect of type of fiber, site of fermetation, method for quantifying insoluble and soluble dietary fiber, and their correction for intestinal mucin on fiber digestibility were examined in rabbits. Three diets differing in soluble fiber were formulated (8.5% soluble fiber, on DM basis, in the low soluble fiber [LSF] diet; 10.2% in the medium soluble fiber [MSF] diet; and 14.5% in the high soluble fiber [HSF] diet). They were obtained by replacing half of the dehydrated alfalfa in the MSF diet with a mixture of beet and apple pulp (HSF diet) or with a mix of oat hulls and soybean protein (LSF diet). Thirty rabbits with ileal T-cannulas were used to determine ileal and fecal digestibility. Cecal digestibility was determined by difference between fecal and ileal digestibility. Insoluble fiber was measured as NDF, insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), and in vitro insoluble fiber, whereas soluble fiber was calculated as the difference between total dietary fiber (TDF) and NDF (TDF_NDF), IDF (TDF-IDF), and in vitro insoluble fiber (TDF-in vitro insoluble fiber). The intestinal mucin content was used to correct the TDF and soluble fiber digestibility. Ileal and fecal concentration of mucin increased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (P < 0.01). Once corrected for intestinal mucin, ileal and fecal digestibility of TDF and soluble fiber increased whereas cecal digestibility decreased (P < 0.01). Ileal digestibility of TDF increased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (12.0 vs. 28.1%; P < 0.01), with no difference in the cecum (26.4%), resulting in a higher fecal digestibility from the LSF to the HSF diet group (P < 0.01). Ileal digestibility of insoluble fiber increased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (11.3 vs. 21.0%; P < 0.01), with no difference in the cecum (13.9%) and no effect of fiber method, resulting in a higher fecal digestibility for rabbits fed the HSF diet compared with the MSF and LSF diets groups (P < 0.01).Fecal digestibility of NDF was higher compared with IDF or in vitro insoluble fiber (P < 0.01). Ileal soluble fiber digestibility was higher for the HSF than for the LSF diet group (43.6 vs. 14.5%; P < 0.01) and fiber method did not affect it. Cecal soluble fiber digestibility decreased from the LSF to the HSF diet group (72.1 vs. 49.2%; P < 0.05). The lowest cecal and fecal soluble fiber digestibility was measured using TDF-NDF (P < 0.01). In conclusion, a correction for intestinal mucin is necessary for ileal TDF and soluble fiber digestibility whereas the selection of the fiber method has a minor relevance. The inclusion of sugar beet and apple pulp increased the amount of TDF fermented in the small intestine.

Induction of cellular immunity in chimpanzees to human tumor-associated antigen mucin by vaccination with MUC-1 cDNA-transfected Epstein-Barr virus-immortalized autologous B cells.

Aberrant glycosylation of the mucin molecule (encoded by the gene MUC-1) on human epithelial cell tumors leads to the exposure of tumor-associated epitopes recognized by patients' antibodies and cytotoxic T cells. Consequently, these epitopes could be considered targets for immunotherapy. We designed a cellular vaccine, employing, instead of tumor cells, autologous Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-immortalized B cells as carriers of tumor-associated mucin, to take advantage of their costimulatory molecules for T-cell activation. The vaccine was tested in chimpanzees because of the identity of the human and chimpanzee MUC-1 tandem repeat sequence. EBV-immortalized B cells derived from two chimpanzees were transfected with MUC-1 cDNA, treated with glycosylation inhibitor phenyl-N-acetyl-alpha-D-galactosaminide to expose tumor-associated epitopes, irradiated, and injected subcutaneously four times at 3-week intervals. One vaccine preparation also contained cells transduced with the interleukin 2 (IL-2) cDNA and producing low levels of IL-2. Already after the first injection we found in the peripheral blood measurable frequency of cytotoxic T-cell precursors specific for underglycosylated mucin. The highest frequency observed was after the last boost, in the lymph node draining the vaccination site. Delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction to the injected immunogens was also induced, whereas no appearance of mucin-specific antibodies was seen. Long-term observation of the animals yielded no signs of adverse effects of this immunization. Autologous antigen-presenting cells, like EBV-immortalized B cells, expressing tumor-associated antigens are potentially useful immunogens for induction of cellular anti-tumor responses in vivo.

Cytokine synthesis by intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes. Both gamma/delta T cell receptor-positive and alpha/beta T cell receptor-positive T cells in the G1 phase of cell cycle produce IFN-gamma and IL-5

Murine intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes (IEL) have been shown to contain subsets of alpha/beta TCR+ and gamma/delta TCR+ T cells that spontaneously produce cytokines such as IFN-gamma and IL-5. We have now determined the nature and cell cycle stage of these cytokine-producing T lymphocytes in EIL by using IFN-gamma- and IL-5-specific ELISPOT assay, cytokine-specific mRNA-cDNA dot-blot hybridization and polymerase chain reaction, and flow cytometry (FACS) for DNA analysis. When CD3+ T cells from IEL of normal C3H/HeN mice were separated into low and high density fractions by discontinuous Percoll gradients, IFN-gamma and IL-5 spot-forming cells were only found in the former population. Analysis of mRNA for these cytokines by both IFN-gamma- and IL-5-specific dot-blot hybridization and polymerase chain reaction revealed that higher levels of message for IFN-gamma and IL-5 were also seen in the low density fraction. However, cell cycle analysis of these two fractions by FACS using propidium iodide showed a similar pattern of cell cycle stages in both low and high density populations (G0 + G1 approximately 96 to 98% and S/G2 + M approximately 2 to 4%). Finally, mRNA from gamma/delta TCR+ and alpha/beta TCR+ T cells in both low and high density fractions of IEL were analyzed for IFN-gamma and IL-5 message by polymerase chain reaction. After 35 cycles of amplification, both gamma/delta TCR+ and alpha/beta TCR+ T cells in the low density fraction expressed higher levels of message for these two cytokines when compared with the high density population. These results have now shown that both gamma/delta and alpha/beta TCR+ IEL can be separated into low and high density subsets and both fractions possess a similar stage of cell cycle. However, only the low density cells (in G1 phase) of both gamma/delta and alpha/beta TCR types possess increased cytokine-specific mRNA and produce the cytokines IFN-gamma and IL-5. Our results suggest that alpha/beta TCR+ and gamma/delta TCR+ IEL can produce cytokines without cell proliferation.

Pachymedusa dacnicolor tryptophyllin-1 (PdT-1): structural characterization, pharmacological activity and cloning of precursor cDNA.

Tryptophyllins are a heterogenous group of amphibian skin peptides originally identified in skin extracts of Neotropical leaf frogs, Phyllomedusa sp., by chemical means. Until now, biosynthetic precursor structure and biological activity remain unreported. Here we describe the isolation of a novel, post-translationally modified tryptophyllin, Lys-Pro-Hyp-Ala-Trp-Val-Pro.amide (PdT-1), from the skin secretion of the Mexican leaf frog, Pachymedusa dacnicolor. Using a 3'- and 5'-RACE strategy and an in vitro skin cDNA library, the PdT-1-encoding precursor was cloned and found to consist of an open-reading frame of 62 amino acids with a single copy of PdT-1 located towards the C-terminus. A synthetic replicate of PdT-1 was found to be a potent myoactive agent, relaxing mammalian arterial smooth muscle and contracting small intestinal smooth muscle at nanomolar concentrations. PdT-1 is thus the first amphibian skin tryptophyllin to be pharmacologically characterized and the first whose precursor cDNA has been cloned.

Hylambatin and (Thr)11-hylambatin from the skin secretion of the African hyperoliid frog, Kassina maculata: Structural characterisation, precursor cDNA cloning and preliminary pharmacological testing

The tachykinins hylambatin and (Thr)11-hylambatin have been isolated from the defensive skin secretion of the African hyperoliid frog, Kassina maculata,. Hylambatin (DPPDPNRFYGMMamide) is revised in structure from the original sequence by a single site substitution (Asn/Asp at position 6), and (Thr)11-hylambatin, a novel tachykinin, differs in structure from hylambatin by a single Thr/Met substitution. (Thr)11-hylambatin is five- to ten-fold more abundant than hylambatin in secretions. Synthetic replicates of both peptides were active in smooth muscle preparations including the rat tail artery, rat ileum and bovine trachea. While hylambatin displayed activity consistent with an NK1-receptor ligand, (Thr)11-hylambatin was more active than either substance P or neurokinin A in both NK1- and NK-2 receptor rich preparations. Incorporation of a threoninyl residue rather than the canonical leucyl residue at the penultimate position in both substance P and neurokinin A, generated active ligands in both arterial and intestinal smooth muscle preparations. Hylambatin precursor cDNAs, designated HYBN-1 and HYBN-2, respectively, were cloned from a skin library by 3'- and 5'-RACE reactions. Both were highly-homologous containing open-reading frames of 66 amino acids encoding single copies of either hylambatin or (Thr)11-hylambatin. These data reveal a hitherto unrecognized structure/activity attribute of mammalian tachykinin receptors revealed though discovery of a novel amphibian skin-derived, site-substituted peptide ligand.

Response of porcine intestinal in vitro organ culture tissues following exposure to Lactobacillus plantarum JC1 and Salmonella Typhimurium SL1344.

The development of novel intervention strategies for the control of zoonoses caused by bacteria such as Salmonella spp. in livestock requires appropriate experimental models to assess their suitability. Here, a novel porcine intestinal in vitro organ culture (IVOC) model utilizing cell crown (CC) technology (CCIVOC) (Scaffdex) was developed. The CCIVOC model was employed to investigate the characteristics of association of S. enterica serovar Typhimurium strain SL1344 with porcine intestinal tissue following exposure to a Lactobacillus plantarum strain. The association of bacteria to host cells was examined by light microscopy and electron microscopy (EM) after appropriate treatments and staining, while changes in the proteome of porcine jejunal tissues were investigated using quantitative label-free proteomics. Exposure of porcine intestinal mucosal tissues to L. plantarum JC1 did not reduce the numbers of S. Typhimurium bacteria associating to the tissues but was associated with significant (P < 0.005) reductions in the percentages of areas of intestinal IVOC tissues giving positive staining results for acidic mucins. Conversely, the quantity of neutrally charged mucins present within the goblet cells of the IVOC tissues increased significantly (P < 0.05). In addition, tubulin- was expressed at high levels following inoculation of jejunal IVOC tissues with L. plantarum. Although L. plantarum JC1 did not reduce the association of S. Typhimurium strain SL1344 to the jejunal IVOC tissues, detection of increased acidic mucin secretion, host cytoskeletal rearrangements, and proteins involved in the porcine immune response demonstrated that this strain of L. plantarum may contribute to protecting the pig from infections by S. Typhimurium or other pathogens.

Bidens pilosa L: efeitos protetores na inflamação intestinal

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Effect of mucoadhesive polymers on the in vitro performance of insulin-loaded silica nanoparticles: Interactions with mucin and biomembrane models

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Desenvolvimento de dispersões sólidas e nanopartículas poliméricas mucoadesivas de Zidovudina e avaliação da interação biológica com a mucosa intestinal

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Effect of pH, mucin and bovine serum on rifampicin permeability through Caco-2 cells

Rifampicin, a poorly soluble drug, has great importance in therapeutics as it is the main drug used to treat tuberculosis. The characterization of its permeability and the factors that influence it represent an important tool for predicting its bioavailability. Caco-2 cell monolayers were used as models of the intestinal mucosa to assess the uptake and transport of rifampicin and the effects of various experimental conditions were investigated, in order to establish the influence of these variables on rifampicin permeability. Different pHs (5.8, 6.8 and 7.4) in the apical medium, the presence or absence of mucin (3.0% w/v) in the donor site and the presence or absence of bovine serum albumin (4.0% v/v) in the receptor chamber were the evaluated conditions. The quantification of rifampicin in the apical or basolateral chambers was performed by a validated HPLC-UV method. The change in the donor chamber pH showed that permeability values were greater at pH 6.8, although this increase does not result in an alteration of the qualitative classification of rifampicin, which has high permeability. Mucin and bovine serum showed no effects on the permeability of rifampicin at the concentration tested. Overall, the current study suggests that pH, artificial mucin and bovine serum proteins have no influence on rifampicin permeability. Copyright (c) 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Exposure to food allergens through inflamed skin promotes intestinal food allergy through the thymic stromal lymphopoietin-basophil axis.

BACKGROUND Exposure to food allergens through a disrupted skin barrier has been recognized as a potential factor in the increasing prevalence of food allergy. OBJECTIVE We sought to test the immunologic mechanisms by which epicutaneous sensitization to food allergens predisposes to intestinal food allergy. METHODS Mice were epicutaneously sensitized with ovalbumin or peanut on an atopic dermatitis-like skin lesion, followed by intragastric antigen challenge. Antigen-specific serum IgE levels and T(H)2 cytokine responses were measured by ELISA. Expression of type 2 cytokines and mast cell proteases in the intestine were measured by using real-time PCR. Accumulation of basophils in the skin and mast cells in the intestine was examined by using flow cytometry. In vivo basophil depletion was achieved by using diphtheria toxin treatment of Baso-DTR mice. For cell-transfer studies, the basophil population was expanded in vivo by means of hydrodynamic tail vein injection of thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) cDNA plasmid. RESULTS Sensitization to food allergens through an atopic dermatitis-like skin lesion is associated with an expansion of TSLP-elicited basophils in the skin that promote antigen-specific T(H)2 cytokine responses, increased antigen-specific serum IgE levels, and accumulation of mast cells in the intestine, promoting the development of intestinal food allergy. Critically, disruption of TSLP responses or depletion of basophils reduced the susceptibility to intestinal food allergy, whereas transfer of TSLP-elicited basophils into intact skin promoted disease. CONCLUSION Epicutaneous sensitization on a disrupted skin barrier is associated with accumulation of TSLP-elicited basophils, which are necessary and sufficient to promote antigen-induced intestinal food allergy.

Differential display of intestinal mRNAs regulated by dietary zinc.

Regulation of gene expression by zinc is well established, especially through the metal response elements of the metallothionein genes; however, most other aspects of the functions of zinc in gene expression remain unknown. We have looked for intestinal mRNAs that are regulated by dietary zinc status. Using the reverse transcriptase-PCR method of mRNA differential display, we compared intestinal mRNA from rats that were maintained for 18 days in one of three dietary groups: zinc-deficient, zinc-adequate, and pair-fed zinc-adequate. At the end of this period, total RNA was prepared from the intestine and analyzed by mRNA differential display. Under these conditions, only differentially displayed cDNA bands that varied in the zinc-deficient group, relative to the zinc-adequate groups, were selected. Utilizing two anchored oligo-dT3' PCR primers and a total of 27 arbitrary decamers as 5' PCR primers, our results yielded 47 differentially displayed cDNA bands from intestinal RNA. Thirty were increased in zinc deficiency, and 17 were decreased. Nineteen bands were subcloned and sequenced. Eleven of these were detectable on Northern blots, of which four were confirmed as regulated. Three of these have homology to known genes: cholecystokinin, uroguanylin, and ubiquinone oxidoreductase. The fourth is a novel sequence as it has no significant homology in GenBank. The remainder of those cloned included novel sequences, as well as matches to reported expressed sequence tags, and functionally identified genes. Further characterization of the regulated sequences identified here will show whether they are primary or secondary effects of zinc deficiency.