Highly fluorescent GFPm2+-based genome integration-proficient promoter probe vector to study Mycobacterium tuberculosis promoters in infected macrophages

Study of activity of cloned promoters in slow-growing Mycobacterium tuberculosis during long-term growth conditions in vitro or inside macrophages, requires a genome-integration proficient promoter probe vector, which can be stably maintained even without antibiotics, carrying a substrate-independent, easily scorable and highly sensitive reporter gene. In order to meet this requirement, we constructed pAKMN2, which contains mycobacterial codon-optimized gfpm2+ gene, coding for GFPm2+ of highest fluorescence reported till date, mycobacteriophage L5 attP-int sequence for genome integration, and a multiple cloning site. pAKMN2 showed stable integration and expression of GFPm2+ from M. tuberculosis and M. smegmatis genome. Expression of GFPm2+, driven by the cloned minimal promoters of M. tuberculosis cell division gene, ftsZ (MtftsZ), could be detected in the M. tuberculosis/pAKMN2-promoter integrants, growing at exponential phase in defined medium in vitro and inside macrophages. Stable expression from genome-integrated format even without antibiotic, and high sensitivity of detection by flow cytometry and fluorescence imaging, in spite of single copy integration, make pAKMN2 useful for the study of cloned promoters of any mycobacterial species under long-term in vitro growth or stress conditions, or inside macrophages.

Measuring Glutathione Redox Potential of HIV-1-infected Macrophages

Redox signaling plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1). The majority of HIV redox research relies on measuring redox stress using invasive technologies, which are unreliable and do not provide information about the contributions of subcellular compartments. A major technological leap emerges from the development of genetically encoded redox-sensitive green fluorescent proteins (roGFPs), which provide sensitive and compartment-specific insights into redox homeostasis. Here, we exploited a roGFP-based specific bioprobe of glutathione redox potential (E-GSH; Grx1-roGFP2) and measured subcellular changes in E-GSH during various phases of HIV-1 infection using U1 monocytic cells (latently infected U937 cells with HIV-1). We show that although U937 and U1 cells demonstrate significantly reduced cytosolic and mitochondrial E-GSH (approximately -310 mV), active viral replication induces substantial oxidative stress (E-GSH more than -240 mV). Furthermore, exposure to a physiologically relevant oxidant, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), induces significant deviations in subcellular E-GSH between U937 and U1, which distinctly modulates susceptibility to apoptosis. Using Grx1-roGFP2, we demonstrate that a marginal increase of about similar to 25 mV in E-GSH is sufficient to switch HIV-1 from latency to reactivation, raising the possibility of purging HIV-1 by redox modulators without triggering detrimental changes in cellular physiology. Importantly, we show that bioactive lipids synthesized by clinical drug-resistant isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis reactivate HIV-1 through modulation of intracellular E-GSH. Finally, the expression analysis of U1 and patient peripheral blood mononuclear cells demonstrated a major recalibration of cellular redox homeostatic pathways during persistence and active replication of HIV.

Burkholderia cenocepacia Type VI Secretion System Mediates Escape of Type II Secreted Proteins into the Cytoplasm of Infected Macrophages

Burkholderia cenocepacia is an opportunistic pathogen that survives intracellularly in macrophages and causes serious respiratory infections in patients with cystic fibrosis. We have previously shown that bacterial survival occurs in bacteria-containing membrane vacuoles (BcCVs) resembling arrested autophagosomes. Intracellular bacteria stimulate IL-1ß secretion in a caspase-1-dependent manner and induce dramatic changes to the actin cytoskeleton and the assembly of the NADPH oxidase complex onto the BcCV membrane. A Type 6 secretion system (T6SS) is required for these phenotypes but surprisingly it is not required for the maturation arrest of the BcCV. Here, we show that macrophages infected with B. cenocepacia employ the NLRP3 inflammasome to induce IL-1ß secretion and pyroptosis. Moreover, IL-1ß secretion by B. cenocepacia-infected macrophages is suppressed in deletion mutants unable to produce functional Type VI, Type IV, and Type 2 secretion systems (SS). We provide evidence that the T6SS mediates the disruption of the BcCV membrane, which allows the escape of proteins secreted by the T2SS into the macrophage cytoplasm. This was demonstrated by the activity of fusion derivatives of the T2SS-secreted metalloproteases ZmpA and ZmpB with adenylcyclase. Supporting this notion, ZmpA and ZmpB are required for efficient IL-1ß secretion in a T6SS dependent manner. ZmpA and ZmpB are also required for the maturation arrest of the BcCVs and bacterial intra-macrophage survival in a T6SS-independent fashion. Our results uncover a novel mechanism for inflammasome activation that involves cooperation between two bacterial secretory pathways, and an unanticipated role for T2SS-secreted proteins in intracellular bacterial survival.

Salmonella typhimurium invasion induces apoptosis in infected macrophages.

Invasive Salmonella typhimurium induces dramatic cytoskeletal changes on the membrane surface of mammalian epithelial cells and RAW264.7 macrophages as part of its entry mechanism. Noninvasive S. typhimurium strains are unable to induce this membrane ruffling. Invasive S. typhimurium strains invade RAW264.7 macrophages in 2 h with 7- to 10-fold higher levels than noninvasive strains. Invasive S. typhimurium and Salmonella typhi, independent of their ability to replicate intracellularly, are cytotoxic to RAW264.7 macrophages and, to a greater degree, to murine bone marrow-derived macrophages. Here, we show that the macrophage cytotoxicity mediated by invasive Salmonella is apoptosis, as shown by nuclear morphology, cytoplasmic vacuolization, and host cell DNA fragmentation. S. typhimurium that enter cells causing ruffles but are mutant for subsequent intracellular replication also initiate host cell apoptosis. Mutant S. typhimurium that are incapable of inducing host cell membrane ruffling fail to induce apoptosis. The activation state of the macrophage plays a significant role in the response of macrophages to Salmonella invasion, perhaps indicating that the signal or receptor for initiating programmed cell death is upregulated in activated macrophages. The ability of Salmonella to promote apoptosis may be important for the initiation of infection, bacterial survival, and escape of the host immune response.

Human alveolar T lymphocyte responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens: role for CD4+ and CD8+ cytotoxic T cells and relative resistance of alveolar macrophages to lysis.

T cell-mediated cytotoxicity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB)-infected macrophages may be a major mechanism of specific host defense, but little is known about such activities in the lung. Thus, the capacity of alveolar lymphocyte MTB-specific cell lines (AL) and alveolar macrophages (AM) from tuberculin skin test-positive healthy subjects to serve as CTL and target cells, respectively, in response to MTB (H37Ra) or purified protein derivative (PPD) was investigated. Mycobacterial Ag-pulsed AM were targets of blood CTL activity at E:T ratios of > or = 30:1 (51Cr release assay), but were significantly more resistant to cytotoxicity than autologous blood monocytes. PPD- plus IL-2-expanded AL and blood lymphocytes were cytotoxic for autologous mycobacterium-stimulated monocytes at E:T ratios of > or = 10:1. The CTL activity of lymphocytes expanded with PPD was predominantly class II MHC restricted, whereas the CTL activity of lymphocytes expanded with PPD plus IL-2 was both class I and class II MHC restricted. Both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells were enriched in BL and AL expanded with PPD and IL-2, and both subsets had mycobacterium-specific CTL activity. Such novel cytotoxic responses by CD4+ and CD8+ T cells may be a major mechanism of defense against MTB at the site of disease activity.

MicroRNA-155 Is Required for Mycobacterium bovis BCG-Mediated Apoptosis of Macrophages

Pathogenic rnycobacteria, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis, cause significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. However, the vaccine strain Mycobacterium bovis BCG, unlike virulent strains, triggers extensive apoptosis of infected macrophages, a step necessary for the elicitation of robust protective immunity. We here demonstrate that M. bovis BCG triggers Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2)-dependent microRNA-155 (miR-155) expression, which involves signaling cross talk among phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase C delta (PKC delta), and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and recruitment of NF-kappa B and c-ETS to miR-155 promoter. Genetic and signaling perturbations presented the evidence that miR-155 regulates PKA signaling by directly targeting a negative regulator of PKA, protein kinase inhibitor alpha (PKI-alpha). Enhanced activation of PKA signaling resulted in the generation of PKA C-alpha; phosphorylation of MSK1, cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB), and histone H3; and recruitment of phospho-CREB to the apoptotic gene promoters. The miR-155-triggered activation of caspase-3, BAK1, and cytochrome c translocation involved signaling integration of MAPKs and epigenetic or posttranslational modification of histones or CREB. Importantly, M. bovis BCG infection-induced apoptosis was severely compromised in macrophages derived from miR-155 knockout mice. Gain-of-function and loss-of-function studies validated the requirement of miR-155 for M. bovis BCG's ability to trigger apoptosis. Overall, M. bovis BCG-driven miR-155 dictates cell fate decisions of infected macrophages, strongly implicating a novel role for miR-155 in orchestrating cellular reprogramming during immune responses to mycobacterial infection.

Développement d'une méthode d'isolation des noyaux adaptée aux macrophages pour une caractérisation protéomique d'une nouvelle structure autophagique induite par le virus HSV-1

L’autophagie est un processus cellulaire catabolique qui a été conservé durant l’évolution de la levure à l’homme. Cet important mécanisme consiste en une dégradation des composants cytoplasmiques dans une structure lytique, le lysosome. Il existe trois types de l’autophagie : la microautophagie, l’autophagie médiée par les chaperones et la macroautophagie nommée « autophagie ». Il a été démontré que lors de l’autophagie, le matériel cytoplasmique (protéines cytosoliques et organites) est séquestré dans l’autophagosome qui finit par fusionner avec le lysosome, formant ainsi l’autophagolysosome. Le matériel séquestré et la membrane interne de l’autophagosome seront dégradés par les hydrolases lysosomales. Plusieurs études se sont focalisées sur la détermination de la machinerie moléculaire et les mécanismes de l’autophagie. Il a été démontré l’implication de 31 molécules Atg essentielles dans le processus de l’autophagie. L’identification de ces protéines a permis de déceler le rôle de l’autophagie non seulement dans le maintien de l’homéostasie cellulaire mais aussi dans la défense contre les agents pathogènes. En effet, l’autophagie joue un rôle important dans l’immunité innée conduisant à contrôler l’évasion des pathogènes dont les bactéries et les virus. Également, l’autophagie est impliquée dans l’immunité adaptative en favorisant la présentation des antigènes viraux par le CMH de classe II aux cellules T CD4+. De plus, une étude récente suggère que l’autophagie contribue à la présentation antigénique par le CMH de classe I aux cellules T CD8+ durant une infection virale par le virus HSV-1 (Herpes simplex type 1). Toutefois, certains virus y compris HSV-1 ont pu développer des mécanismes pour contourner et inhiber en partie le rôle protecteur de l’autophagie. Récemment, une étude dans notre laboratoire a mis en évidence, lors d’une infection virale par HSV-1 des cellules macrophages BMA, la présence d’une nouvelle structure autophagique dans une phase tardive de l’infection. Cette nouvelle structure est différente des autophagosomes classiques à double membrane et est caractérisée morphologiquement par quatre membranes dérivées de l’enveloppe nucléaire interne et externe. Peu de choses ont été rapportées sur cette nouvelle voie autophagique qui peut être un mécanisme de défense cellulaire quand l’autophagie classique dans le cytosol est inhibée par HSV-1. Il devient donc intéressant de caractériser les molécules impliquées dans la formation de ces autophagosomes issus du noyau par spectrométrie de masse. Pour ce faire, il était impératif d’établir un outil d’isolation des noyaux à partir de macrophages infectés par HSV-1 dans lesquels les autophagosomes issus des noyaux seront formés. La validation de cette méthode d’isolation a été effectuée en déterminant la pureté et l’intégrité des noyaux isolés à partir des cellules non infectées (contrôle) et infectées par HSV-1. La pureté des préparations de noyaux isolés a été caractérisée par l’absence de contaminants cellulaires et un enrichissement en noyaux. Également, il a fallu déterminer la cinétique de formation des autophagosomes issus des noyaux pour les deux lignées cellulaires de macrophages utilisées dans ce projet. Dans une perspective future, l’analyse protéomique à partir des échantillons purs des noyaux isolés (non infectés et infectés) mènera à identifier les protéines impliquées dans la formation des autophagosomes dérivés des noyaux, ce qui permettra ultérieurement d’effectuer des études sur les mécanismes moléculaires et les fonctions de cette nouvelle voie autophagique.

Identification et caractérisation de gènes chez Salmonella enterica sérovar Typhi impliqués dans l’interaction avec les macrophages humains.

Le genre bactérien Salmonella regroupe plus de 2500 sérovars, mais peu sont responsables de pathologies humaines. Salmonella enterica sérovar Typhi (S. Typhi) est reconnu pour son importance médicale à travers le globe. S. Typhi cause la fièvre typhoïde chez l’Homme, une maladie infectieuse létale caractérisée par la dissémination systémique de la bactérie vers des organes du système réticulo-endothélial. La fièvre typhoïde représente un fardeau pour la santé mondiale, notamment auprès des pays en développement où les conditions sanitaires sont désuètes. La situation se complique davantage par l’apparition de souches résistantes aux antibiotiques. De plus, les deux vaccins licenciés sont d’efficacité modérée, présentent certaines contraintes techniques et ne sont pas appropriés pour les jeunes enfants et nourrissons. La phase systémique de l’infection par Salmonella repose sur sa survie dans les macrophages du système immunitaire. Dans ce compartiment intracellulaire, la bactérie module les défenses antimicrobiennes grâce à de multiples facteurs de virulence encodés dans son génome. Les mécanismes moléculaires sollicités sont complexes et finement régulés. Malgré les progrès scientifiques réalisés précédemment, plusieurs incompréhensions persistent au sujet de l’adaptation de ce pathogène dans les macrophages de l’hôte. Pour mieux concevoir les déterminants génétiques de S. Typhi impliqués dans l’interaction avec ces cellules, une stratégie de sélection négative a été appliquée afin de vérifier systématiquement l’effet direct des gènes pendant l’infection. En premier temps, une librairie de mutants par transposon chez S. Typhi a été créée pour l’infection de macrophages humains en culture. Après 24 heures d’infection, la présence des mutants fut évaluée simultanément par analyse sur des biopuces de Salmonella. Au total, 130 gènes ont été sélectionnés pour leur contribution potentielle auprès des macrophages infectés. Ces gènes comptaient des composantes d’enveloppe bactérienne, des éléments fimbriaires, des portions du flagelle, des régulateurs, des facteurs de pathogenèse et plusieurs protéines sans fonction connue. En deuxième temps, cette collection de gènes a dirigé la création de 28 mutants de délétion définie chez S. Typhi. Les capacités d’entrée et de réplication intracellulaire de ces mutants au sein des macrophages humains ont été caractérisées. D’abord, les macrophages ont été co-infectés avec les mutants en présence de la souche sauvage, pour vérifier la compétitivité de chacun d’eux envers cette dernière. Ensuite, les mutants ont été inoculés individuellement chez les macrophages et leur infectivité fut mesurée comparativement à celle de la souche sauvage. Sommairement, 26 mutants ont présenté des défauts lorsqu’en compétition, tandis que 14 mutants se sont montrés défectueux lorsque testés seuls. Par ailleurs, 12 mutants ont exposé une déficience lors de l’infection mixte et individuelle, incluant les mutants acrA, exbDB, flhCD, fliC, gppA, mlc, pgtE, typA, waaQGP, STY1867-68, STY2346 et SPI-4. Notamment, 35 nouveaux phénotypes défectueux d’entrée ou de survie intracellulaire chez Salmonella ont été révélés par cette étude. Les données générées ici offrent plusieurs nouvelles pistes pour élucider comment S. Typhi manipule sa niche intracellulaire, menant à l’infection systémique. Les gènes décrits représentent des cibles potentielles pour atténuer la bactérie chez l’humain et pourraient contribuer au développement de meilleures souches vaccinales pour immuniser contre la fièvre typhoïde.

A molecular analysis of the interactions of escherichia coli and macrophages

Escherichia coli (E.coli) is a diverse bacterial species that primarily forms a beneficial symbiotic relationship with the host in the human lower gastrointestinal track (GIT), however it can also be pathogenic in this environment. Furthermore, some strains can diverge from the GIT and occupy niches such as the urinary tract. In all these environments, E. coli interacts with the immune system and macrophages represent the front line of the innate immune system. In this study we characterise the immune response by macrophages to E. coli infection. It was shown that E. coli broadly provoke a similar cytokine response during macrophages infection and furthermore are degraded primarily by the phagocytosis pathway. Recently a new group of E. coli called Adherent Invasive Escherichia coli (AIEC) has been described. AIEC are present in the guts of Crohn’s disease (CD) patients at a higher frequency than in healthy patients. AIEC can replicate in macrophages but the mechanism for this is not fully understood. The processing of AIEC by macrophages was investigated and it was shown that AIEC only replicated in permissive macrophages. Furthermore, even in a permissive macrophages AIEC are trafficked through macrophages in a similar manner to commensal E. coli. This supports the hypothesis that AIEC are highly similar to commensal E. coli and only cause pathogenicity when present in the permissive environment of the gut of CD patients. Replication in macrophages requires functioning metabolic pathways and it was identified that glycolysis is important for AIEC survival in macrophages. AIEC mutants without a fully functioning glycolysis pathway induced less IL-1β cytokine release from macrophages than wild type strain suggesting that metabolism plays a role in inflammasome activation. Furthermore, AIEC mutants that could not produce the glycolytic end product acetate induced significantly reduced IL-1β release during infection. This suggest that the acetate molecule or a phenotypic effect of its production may be a driver of IL-1β release from AIEC infected macrophages. The interaction of uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) with macrophages was also investigated. UPEC induced very high levels of cytotoxicity in human macrophages which was shown to be dependent on the production of the pore forming toxin α-hemolysin. However, UPEC did not induced high levels of cytotoxicity in murine macrophages suggesting there are species specific sensitivity to α-hemolysin that should be considered when studying UPEC pathogenicity in murine models.

Candida albicans Modifies the Protein Composition and Size Distribution of THP1 macrophages-derived Extracellular Vesicles.

The effectiveness of macrophages in the response to systemic candidiasis is crucial to an effective clearance of the pathogen. The secretion of proteins, mRNAs, non-coding RNAs and lipids through extracellular vesicles (EVs) is one of the mechanisms of communication between immune cells. EVs change their cargo to mediate different responses, and may play a role in the response against infections. Thus, we have undertaken the first quantitative proteomic analysis on the protein composition of THP1 macrophages-derived EVs during the interaction with Candida albicans. This study revealed changes in EVs sizes and in protein composition, and allowed the identification and quantification of 717 proteins. Of them, 133 proteins changed their abundance due to the interaction. The differentially abundant proteins were involved in functions relating to immune response, signaling, or cytoskeletal reorganization. THP1-derived EVs, both from control and from Candida-infected macrophages, had similar effector functions on other THP1-differenciated macrophages, activating ERK and p38 kinases, and increasing both the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and the candidacidal activity; while in THP1 non-differenciated monocytes, only EVs from infected macrophages increased significantly the TNF-α secretion. Our findings provide new information on the role of macrophage-derived EVs in response to C. albicans infection and in macrophages communication.

Regulation of human CD4(+) alphabeta T-cell-receptor-positive (TCR(+)) and gammadelta TCR(+) T-cell responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis by interleukin-10 and transforming growth factor beta.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the etiologic agent of human tuberculosis and is estimated to infect one-third of the world's population. Control of M. tuberculosis requires T cells and macrophages. T-cell function is modulated by the cytokine environment, which in mycobacterial infection is a balance of proinflammatory (interleukin-1 [IL-1], IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, and tumor necrosis factor alpha) and inhibitory (IL-10 and transforming growth factor beta [TGF-beta]) cytokines. IL-10 and TGF-beta are produced by M. tuberculosis-infected macrophages. The effect of IL-10 and TGF-beta on M. tuberculosis-reactive human CD4(+) and gammadelta T cells, the two major human T-cell subsets activated by M. tuberculosis, was investigated. Both IL-10 and TGF-beta inhibited proliferation and gamma interferon production by CD4(+) and gammadelta T cells. IL-10 was a more potent inhibitor than TGF-beta for both T-cell subsets. Combinations of IL-10 and TGF-beta did not result in additive or synergistic inhibition. IL-10 inhibited gammadelta and CD4(+) T cells directly and inhibited monocyte antigen-presenting cell (APC) function for CD4(+) T cells and, to a lesser extent, for gammadelta T cells. TGF-beta inhibited both CD4(+) and gammadelta T cells directly and had little effect on APC function for gammadelta and CD4(+) T cells. IL-10 down-regulated major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I, MHC class II, CD40, B7-1, and B7-2 expression on M. tuberculosis-infected monocytes to a greater extent than TGF-beta. Neither cytokine affected the uptake of M. tuberculosis by monocytes. Thus, IL-10 and TGF-beta both inhibited CD4(+) and gammadelta T cells but differed in the mechanism used to inhibit T-cell responses to M. tuberculosis.

CD4+ alpha beta T cell and gamma delta T cell responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Similarities and differences in Ag recognition, cytotoxic effector function, and cytokine production.

CD4+ and gamma delta T cells are activated readily by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. To examine their role in the human immune response to M. tuberculosis, CD4+ and gamma delta T cells from healthy tuberculin-positive donor were studied for patterns of Ag recognition, cytotoxicity, and cytokine production in response to M. tuberculosis-infected mononuclear phagocytes. Both T cell subsets responded to intact M. tuberculosis and its cytosolic Ags. However, CD4+ and gamma delta T cells differed in the range of cytosolic Ags recognized: reactivity to a wide m.w. range of Ags for CD4+ T cells, and a restricted pattern for gamma delta T cells, with dominance of Ags of 10 to 15 kDa. Both T cell subsets were equally cytotoxic for M. tuberculosis-infected monocytes. Furthermore, both CD4+ and gamma delta T cells produced large amounts of IFN-gamma: mean pg/ml of IFN-gamma in supernatants was 2458 +/- 213 for CD4+ and 2349 +/- 245 for gamma delta T cells. By filter-spot ELISA (ELISPOT), the frequency of IFN-gamma-secreting gamma delta T cells was one-half of that of CD4+ T cells in response to M. tuberculosis, suggesting that gamma delta T cells on a per cell basis were more efficient producers of IFN-gamma than CD4+ T cells. In contrast, CD4+ T cells produced more IL-2 than gamma delta T cells, which correlated with diminished T cell proliferation of gamma delta T cells compared with CD4+ T cells. These results indicate that CD4+ and gamma delta T cell subsets have similar effector functions (cytotoxicity, IFN-gamma production) in response to M. tuberculosis-infected macrophages, despite differences in the Ags recognized, IL-2 production, and efficiency of IFN-gamma production.

Antimony-resistant but not antimony-sensitive Leishmania donovani up-regulates host IL-10 to overexpress multidrug-resistant protein 1

The molecular mechanism of antimony-resistant Leishmania donovani ((SbLD)-L-R)-driven up-regulation of IL-10 and multidrug-resistant protein 1 (MDR1) in infected macrophages (M phi s) has been investigated. This study showed that both promastigote and amastigote forms of (SbLD)-L-R, but not the antimony-sensitive form of LD, express a unique glycan with N-acetylgalactosamine as a terminal sugar. Removal of it either by enzyme treatment or by knocking down the relevant enzyme, galactosyltransferase in (SbLD)-L-R (KD (SbLD)-L-R), compromises the ability to induce the above effects. Infection of M phi s with KD (SbLD)-L-R enhanced the sensitivity toward antimonials compared with infection with (SbLD)-L-R, and infection of BALB/c mice with KD (SbLD)-L-R caused significantly less organ parasite burden compared with infection induced by (SbLD)-L-R. The innate immune receptor, Toll-like receptor 2/6 heterodimer, is exploited by (SbLD)-L-R to activate ERK and nuclear translocation of NF-kappa B involving p50/c-Rel leading to IL-10 induction, whereas MDR1 up-regulation is mediated by PI3K/Akt and the JNK pathway. Interestingly both recombinant IL-10 and (SbLD)-L-R up-regulate MDR1 in M. with different time kinetics, where phosphorylation of PI3K was noted at 12 h and 48 h, respectively, but M phi s derived from IL-10(-/-) mice are unable to show MDR1 up-regulation on infection with (SbLD)-L-R. Thus, it is very likely that an IL-10 surge is a prerequisite for MDR1 up-regulation. The transcription factor important for IL-10-driven MDR1 up-regulation is c-Fos/c-Jun and not NF-kappa B, as evident from studies with pharmacological inhibitors and promoter mapping with deletion constructs.

Nitric oxide and KLF4 protein epigenetically modify class II transactivator to repress Major histocompatibility complex II expression during Mycobacterium bovis Bacillus Calmette-Guerin infection

Pathogenic mycobacteria employ several immune evasion strategies such as inhibition of class II transactivator (CIITA) and MHC-II expression, to survive and persist in host macrophages. However, precise roles for specific signaling components executing down-regulation of CIITA/MHC-II have not been adequately addressed. Here, we demonstrate that Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG)-mediated TLR2 signaling-induced iNOS/NO expression is obligatory for the suppression of IFN-gamma-induced CIITA/MHC-II functions. Significantly, NOTCH/PKC/MAPK-triggered signaling cross-talk was found critical for iNOS/NO production. NO responsive recruitment of a bifunctional transcription factor, KLF4, to the promoter of CIITA during M. bovis BCG infection of macrophages was essential to orchestrate the epigenetic modifications mediated by histone methyltransferase EZH2 or miR-150 and thus calibrate CIITA/MHC-II expression. NO-dependent KLF4 regulated the processing and presentation of ovalbumin by infected macrophages to reactive T cells. Altogether, our study delineates a novel role for iNOS/NO/KLF4 in dictating the mycobacterial capacity to inhibit CIITA/MHC-II-mediated antigen presentation by infected macrophages and thereby elude immune surveillance.