Biodiversity offsetting and restoration under the European Union Habitats Directive: balancing between no net loss and deathbed conservation?

Biodiversity offsets have emerged as one of the most prominent policy approaches to align economic development with nature protection across many jurisdictions, including the European Union. Given the increased level of scrutiny that needs to be applied when authorizing economic developments near protected Natura 2000 sites, the incorporation of onsite biodiversity offsets in project design has grown increasingly popular in some member states, such as the Netherlands and Belgium. Under this approach, the negative effects of developments are outbalanced by restoration programs that are functionally linked to the infrastructure projects. However, although taking into consideration that the positive effects of onsite restoration measures leads to more leeway for harmful project development, the EU Court of Justice has recently dismissed the latter approaches for going against the preventative underpinnings of the EU Habitats Directive. Also, the expected beneficial outcomes of the restoration efforts are uncertain and thus cannot be relied upon in an ecological assessment under Article 6(3) of the Habitats Directive. Although biodiversity offsets can still be relied upon whenever application is being made of the derogation clause under Article 6(4) of the Habitats Directive, they cannot be used as mitigation under the generic decision-making process for plans and programs liable to adversely affect Natura 2000 sites. We outline the main arguments pro and contra the stance of the EU Court of Justice with regards to the exact delineation between mitigation and compensation. The analysis is also framed in the ongoing debate on the effectiveness of the EU nature directives. Although ostensibly rigid, it is argued that the recent case-law developments are in line with the main principles underpinning biodiversity offsetting. Opening the door for biodiversity offsetting under the Habitats Directive will certainly not reverse the predicament of the EU’s biodiversity. A reinforcement of the preventative approach is instrumental to avert a further biodiversity loss within the European Union, even if it will lead to additional permit refusals for unsustainable project developments.

Assessing the conservation status of the strict endemic Desertas wolf spider, Hogna ingens (Araneae, Lycosidae)

The Desertas Islands (Madeira, Portugal) are the sole home of one of the largest and rarest wolf spiderspecies, Hogna ingens (Blackwall 1857) (Araneae, Lycosidae). Despite its size, it inhabits a single valleyin the North of the Deserta Grande Island, Vale da Castanheira, currently invaded by the herb Phalarisaquatica. This invasive species competes with the native flora and was subject to several eradicationexperiments, namely through fire and chemicals. The objectives of this work were to: (1) estimate thecurrent distribution and abundance of H. ingens and respective trends; (2) evaluate the impact of theinvasive plant and eradication methods on the spider population; (3) suggest future measures for therecovery of the species; and (4) evaluate its conservation status according to the IUCN criteria. The current distribution of H. ingens covers 23 ha, a recent reduction from its original 83 ha, correspond-ing to the entire Vale da Castanheira. A total of 4447 and 4086 adults and 71,832 and 24,635 juvenileswere estimated to live in the valley during 2011 and 2012, respectively. We found a significant negativeimpact of P. aquatica cover on the presence and abundance of H. ingens and that chemical treatmentspecifically directed towards the invasive plant species may be the only way to effectively recover thespider's habitat. We suggest (1) regular monitoring; (2) extend chemical treatments; (3) ex-situ conserva-tion with future reintroduction of adults. Based on the current area of occupancy (AOO) of H. ingens and itsrecent decline in both AOO and number of individuals, it was recently classified as Critically Endangeredby IUCN and we suggest its urgent inclusion in the Habitats Directive species lists.

Perceção das crianças do segundo ciclo do ensino básico em relação aos cetáceos

Dissertação de mestrado em Ecologia

Macroalgae across environmental gradients : tools for managing rocky coastal areas of the northern Baltic Sea

Macroalgae are the main primary producers of the temperate rocky shores providing a three-dimensional habitat, food and nursery grounds for many other species. During the past decades, the state of the coastal waters has deteriorated due to increasing human pressures, resulting in dramatic changes in coastal ecosystems, including macroalgal communities. To reverse the deterioration of the European seas, the EU has adopted the Water Framework Directive (WFD) and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD), aiming at improved status of the coastal waters and the marine environment. Further, the Habitats Directive (HD) calls for the protection of important habitats and species (many of which are marine) and the Maritime Spatial Planning Directive for sustainability in the use of resources and human activities at sea and by the coasts. To efficiently protect important marine habitats and communities, we need knowledge on their spatial distribution. Ecological knowledge is also needed to assess the status of the marine areas by involving biological indicators, as required by the WFD and the MSFD; knowledge on how biota changes with human-induced pressures is essential, but to reliably assess change, we need also to know how biotic communities vary over natural environmental gradients. This is especially important in sea areas such as the Baltic Sea, where the natural environmental gradients create substantial differences in biota between areas. In this thesis, I studied the variation occurring in macroalgal communities across the environmental gradients of the northern Baltic Sea, including eutrophication induced changes. The aim was to produce knowledge to support the reliable use of macroalgae as indicators of ecological status of the marine areas and to test practical metrics that could potentially be used in status assessments. Further, the aim was to develop a methodology for mapping the HD Annex I habitat reefs, using the best available data on geology and bathymetry. The results showed that the large-scale variation in the macroalgal community composition of the northern Baltic Sea is largely driven by salinity and exposure. Exposure is important also on smaller spatial scales, affecting species occurrence, community structure and depth penetration of algae. Consequently, the natural variability complicates the use of macroalgae as indicators of human-induced changes. Of the studied indicators, the number of perennial algal species, the perennial cover, the fraction of annual algae, and the lower limit of occurrence of red and brown perennial algae showed potential as usable indicators of ecological status. However, the cumulated cover of algae, commonly used as an indicator in the fully marine environments, showed low responses to eutrophication in the area. Although the mere occurrence of perennial algae did not show clear indicator potential, a distinct discrepancy in the occurrence of bladderwrack, Fucus vesiculosus, was found between two areas with differing eutrophication history, the Bothnian Sea and the Archipelago Sea. The absence of Fucus from many potential sites in the outer Archipelago Sea is likely due to its inability to recover from its disappearance from the area 30-40 years ago, highlighting the importance of past events in macroalgal occurrence. The methodology presented for mapping the potential distribution and the ecological value of reefs showed, that relatively high accuracy in mapping can be achieved by combining existing available data, and the maps produced serve as valuable background information for more detailed surveys. Taken together, the results of the theses contribute significantly to the knowledge on macroalgal communities of the northern Baltic Sea that can be directly applied in various management contexts.

Ecology and conservation of bottlenose dolphins in Madeira Archipelago, Portugal

This study aimed to provide an insight on the ecology of the bottlenose dolphin population in Madeira archipelago. To achieve this, population structure; group dynamics, site-fidelity, residency and movement patterns within and out of the study area; survival and abundance estimates and spatial and temporal distribution and habitat preferences related to physiographic parameters using data collected between 2001-2011, were investigated. Photo-identification data analysis revealed strong evidences that bottlenose dolphins seen in the archipelago of Madeira belong to an open population with regular recruitment of new animals to the area. This population exhibited a typical fission-fusion society, in which short-term acquaintances prevail, with only a few long-lasting associations. Photo-identification methods demonstrated that there is a large variability in residency pattern, with resident, transient and migrant individuals. Only a small number of dolphins were found to be resident (4.3%). Social network diagram as well as SLAR analysis supported the existence of a mixed population of residents, migrants and transients. Mark-recapture methods estimated a high survival rate, within the range of other long-lived cetacean species. The resident community is composed of app. 180 individuals. In addition, around 400 dolphins of different residency patterns were found to use the south area of Madeira Island. Spatial distribution indicated that bottlenose dolphins were regularly found in shallow and closer to shore areas, suggesting the existence of biological processes influenced by bathymetry. Moreover, temporal patterns revealed no strong seasonal fluctuation in the presence of bottlenose dolphins in Madeira archipelago waters. Bottlenose dolphins are listed under the Annex II of the EU habitats Directive that requires the designation of Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) for this species; as such, the knowledge gained through this work can be used by governmental authorities to the establishment and management of areas for the conservation of bottlenose dolphin in Madeira archipelago.

Análisis espacio-temporal de las praderas de Cymodocea nodosa (Ucria) Ascherson en la isla de Gran Canaria

Máster Oficial en Gestión Costera

La biodiversidad marina en la Región de Murcia

Actualmente se ha detectado la existencia de un gradiente de biodiversidad, marcado por el eje Nor-Oeste/Sur-Este y justificado por variables ambientales claves como la latitud, salinidad, temperatura, circulación de las masas de agua, etc. La conjunción de estas variables hacen del litoral de Murcia una de las zonas de mayor biodiversidad del Mediterráneo, mar ya de por sí caracterizado por una alta biodiversidad. Una de las singularidades paisajísticas del litoral murciano son los cañones submarinos cercanos a la línea de costa, propuestos en la Cumbre Mundial de Desarrollo Sostenible de Johannesburgo (2002) como hábitats únicos de gran importancia ecológica. La disposición geográfica del litoral murciano lo convierte en una pantalla que frena el agua procedente del Atlántico y que pasa por Gibraltar, configurando un espacio marino en el que convergen especies mediterráneas y atlánticas, tanto a nivel pelágico como nerítico. La Región de Murcia muestra una gran cantidad de hábitats marinos contenidos en la Lista Patrón de Hábitats Marinos presentes en España, pero si existe un hábitat emblemático en el medio marino mediterráneo y, por ende, en el litoral de la Región de Murcia, es el generado por las praderas de Posidonia oceanica (Posidonietum oceanicae). Otro importantísimo valor natural regional es la laguna salada del Mar Menor, hábitat prioritario de la Directiva Hábitats, que alberga importantes poblaciones de caballito de mar, langostinos y otras especies de interés, además de ser un importante lugar de paso e invernada de aves acuáticas, limícolas y marinas.

Participatory approaches in the management of Natura 2000: when EU biodiversity policy gets closer to its citizens. Bruges Political Research Paper No. 26/May 2012

The Habitats Directive has created a European network of protected areas combining environmental protection with social and economic activities. Although not clearly advocated in the Directive, participatory approaches have incrementally emerged in order to ensure an adequate management of the Natura 2000 network. This paper looks at the reasons why the European Commission on one side and the national/local authorities on the other side chose to engage in participatory approaches and assesses the structure, degree and scope of these approaches in the light of input and output legitimacy. Main findings are that participation was mostly implemented as a reaction to conflicts and out of a concern over policy implementation, two elements that continue to drive the philosophy of the Natura 2000 network‘s management. The limits of participation in Brussels are contrasted with the potential for more genuine and effective participation mechanisms on the field.

Sistematics, population genetics, propagation and conservation of Picconia azorica (Tutin) Knobl. (Oleaceae)

Tese de Doutoramento, Biologia (Ecologia Vegetal), 24 de Junho de 2013, Universidade dos Açores.

An overview of the submerged sea caves of Sagres (South of Portugal-Algarve)

The submerged sea caves of Sagres are located within the “Parque Natural do Sudoeste Alentejano e Costa Vicentina (PNSACV)” Marine Protected Area (MPA). This MPA integrates the national network of protected areas, addressed by the National Institute for Nature Conservation and Forest (ICNF) and was declared Site of Community Importance (SCI) under the Habitats Directive. Under the Annex I from the Habitat Directive these habitat caves are included in “8330 Submerged or partially submerged sea caves”. This conservation status should provide sufficient concern to have detailed information on biodiversity. However, among marine researcher, little is still known about these submerged sea caves and tunnels habitats. The only well-known study dealing with the Sagres sea caves was conducted in the late 80s and was only published in 2001. For effective management of such specific habitats a clear understanding of their localization and extension, the assessment of the biological communities, its conservation importance, its monitoring options and their sensitivity to natural change and human disturbance need to be a relatively clear. This report, produced under the MeshAtlantic Project, provides an overview of the available published and unpublished information relevant for the conservation management of the subtidal caves of Sagres. It mainly aims to be a base contribution for future studies.

Biotic and abiotic parameters that distinguish types of temporary ponds in a Portuguese Mediterranean ecosystem

Temporary ponds are seasonal wetland habitats subjected to extreme and unstable ecological conditions. Some are classified as priority habitats for conservation by the European Union Habitats Directive. Our study area was the coastal plain of southwest Portugal, which spans across 100km north to south and hosts a large number of temporary ponds as a consequence of climatic and edaphic characteristics. Field sampling of floristic and edaphic data was carried out in 24 temporary ponds every spring between 2005 and 2008. We recorded a total of 174 plant species identified within visually homogeneous plots. We included the data in a geographic information system and classified ponds according to their floristic composition, using a biotic regionalization analysis based on species presence/absence, which is a practical and unambiguous criterion. We found three significantly different groups of ponds which corresponded to an eco-physiognomic pond typology: Mediterranean temporary ponds, marshlands, and disturbed ponds. For the first two pond types we defined characteristic or indicator plant species. We searched also for relationships between pond type and a series of large-scale climatic, geographic, and geological variables, as well as local-scale physical and chemical properties of the soil. Pond type was distinguished by a complex combination of some of these variables, including environmental energy, soil texture, nitrogen content of the soil and pH. A practical way of discriminating between different

Exploited anadromous fish in Portugal: Suggested direction for conservation and management.

Sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) and allis shad (Alosa alosa) have been fished for centuries in mainland Portugal during their upstream spawning migration. Here, biological information is compared for the two species and governance and monitoring data from Portugal are reviewed to propose species-specific courses of future action. Despite a national fisheries legislation common for the two species and the designation of Sites of Community Interest (SCIs) for both, the current conservation needs for sea lamprey and allis shad in Portugal are considered to be distinct. For sea lamprey, conservation priorities must focus on planning fisheries managementinarticulationwithhabitatrecoverytoguaranteecost-effective monitoring andsustainablelong-termexploitationthataddsvaluetolocalcommunitiesandpaysdue taxation. Onthecontrary,conservationconcernsandactionsforallisshadmuststrengthenandbemore proactive in the reduction of fishing mortality, both target (in rivers) and by catch (at sea).There is a need to make better use of the opportunities inherent in the Habitats Directive and the possibility to define specific management actions within SCIs. To this effect, it will be necessary to revise existing legislation and guarantee better articulation between jurisdictional authorities. A good example in this direction is the articulation already established in the river Mondego where habitat restoration, fish monitoring and effective species-specific fisheries control measures have been taken and implemented in recent years by a large institutional partnership.

Using sclerochronology to estimate the growth rate in Pinna nobilis: a case study of Les Alfaques Bay population (Ebro Delta, Spain).

Pinna nobilis is the biggest Mediterranean bivalve, endemic and semi-infaunal. Provide hard substrates to colonize, increasing the spatial heterogeneity of the softbottom communities. P. nobilis suffer a drastic decline due to the anthropogenic pressures. It’s included in the Habitats Directive, in the Barcelona Convention, and in the red lists of many Mediterranean countries. Estimates the growth rate allows to understand the population dynamics of species and yield knowledge to improve protection efforts. In this study a new methodology based on sclerochronology was used to estimate the age and the growth rate of a P. nobilis population located in Les Alfaques bay. The shells of 35 specimens were cataloged. A subsample of 20 individuals was selected, and one valve of each specimens was cut into radial sections along PAMS (Posterior Adductor Muscle Scar) to study the inner register. Thus, the positions of PAMS obscured by nacre were identified, and the number of missing records was estimated by the width of the calcitic layer in the anterior part of the shell. The first growth curve for the Les Alfaques bay population was calculated from the length/age data. To simulate the growth rate of this population, the growth model based on the modified Von Bertalanffy equation was used. Shallow water usually hosts small sized populations of P. nobilis, while in deeper waters specimens reaches larger size. In Les Alfaques bay the population is composed by large size individuals though it’s located in shallows waters. This unusual size pattern is probably due to a sand bar that offers protection from hydrodynamic stress, allowing individuals to elongate more. This study contributes to the knowledge on P. nobilis biology and, with the aim to monitor this species, the growth curve could be used as baseline for future studies on habitat characteristics that may affect the population structure and dynamics in Les Alfaques Bay.