Dated co-occurrence of Homo erectus and Gigantopithecus from Tham Khuyen Cave, Vietnam.

Tham Khuyen Cave (Lang Son Province, northern Vietnam) is one of the more significant sites to yield fossil vertebrates in east Asia. During the mid-1960s, excavation in a suite of deposits produced important hominoid dental remains of middle Pleistocene age. We undertake more rigorous analyses of these sediments to understand the fluvial dynamics of Pleistocene cave infilling as they determine how skeletal elements accumulate within Tham Khuyen and other east Asian sites. Uranium/thorium series analysis of speleothems brackets the Pleistocene chronology for breaching, infilling, and exhuming the regional paleokarst. Clast analysis indicates sedimentary constituents, including hominoid teeth and cranial fragments accumulated from very short distances and under low fluvial energy. Electron spin resonance analysis of vertebrate tooth enamel and sediments shows that the main fossil-bearing suite (S1-S3) was deposited about 475 thousand years ago. Among the hominoid teeth excavated from S1-S3, some represent Homo erectus and Gigantopithecus blacki. Criteria are defined to differentiate these teeth from more numerous Pongo pygmaeus elements. The dated co-occurrence of Homo erectus and Gigantopithecus blacki at Tham Khuyen helps to establish the long co-existence of these two species throughout east Asia during the Early and Middle Pleistocene.

Evaluación de la germinación de semillas y propagación vegetativa de Conocarpus erectus (L) con fines de conservación y manejo, en el Área Natural Protegida Complejo Barra de Santiago, sector Barra de Santiago, Departamento de Ahuachapán

El estudio de la evaluación de la germinación de semillas y propagación vegetativa de Conocarpus erectus (L) con fines de conservación y manejo, se llevó a cabo en el Área Natural Protegida Complejo Barra de Santiago, sector Barra de Santiago, Departamento de Ahuachapán, entre los meses de enero a septiembre de 2013. Se evaluaron 100 estacas y 100 acodos aéreos, a los que se les aplicó dos dosis de regulador de crecimiento Kelpak y una dosis del antifúngico Cupravit. En ambas técnicas se utilizó suelo esterilizado. Posteriormente se recolectó un aproximado de 10,000 semillas que se dividieron equitativamente entre dos tratamientos, el tratamiento 1: suelo de manglar y el tratamiento 2: suelo de manglar con excretas de Cardisoma crassum (L) “cangrejo azul”. Para realizar la siembra fue necesario preparar 10 cajas por cada tratamiento y en cada una se sembraron 500 semillas en cada caja. Según los resultados obtenidos después de 15 días, solamente 44 estacas lograron un establecimiento exitoso por que se observaron brotes apicales. Luego de 3 meses solamente se establecieron 19 estacas. En el caso de los acodos aéreos los primeros registros de producción de raíces adventicias se observaron a los 15 días, cuando aún estaban en los árboles, solamente en 30 de los 100 acodos aéreos que se montaron, se establecieron con éxito en el vivero.

Syphilis at the Crossroad of Phylogenetics and Paleopathology

The origin of syphilis is still controversial. Different research avenues explore its fascinating history. Here we employed a new integrative approach, where paleopathology and molecular analyses are combined. As an exercise to test the validity of this approach we examined different hypotheses on the origin of syphilis and other human diseases caused by treponemes (treponematoses). Initially, we constructed a worldwide map containing all accessible reports on palaeopathological evidences of treponematoses before Columbus's return to Europe. Then, we selected the oldest ones to calibrate the time of the most recent common ancestor of Treponema pallidum subsp. pallidum, T. pallidum subsp. endemicum and T. pallidum subsp. pertenue in phylogenetic analyses with 21 genetic regions of different T. pallidum strains previously reported. Finally, we estimated the treponemes' evolutionary rate to test three scenarios: A) if treponematoses accompanied human evolution since Homo erectus; B) if venereal syphilis arose very recently from less virulent strains caught in the New World about 500 years ago, and C) if it emerged in the Americas between 16,500 and 5,000 years ago. Two of the resulting evolutionary rates were unlikely and do not explain the existent osseous evidence. Thus, treponematoses, as we know them today, did not emerge with H. erectus, nor did venereal syphilis appear only five centuries ago. However, considering 16,500 years before present (yBP) as the time of the first colonization of the Americas, and approximately 5,000 yBP as the oldest probable evidence of venereal syphilis in the world, we could not entirely reject hypothesis C. We confirm that syphilis seems to have emerged in this time span, since the resulting evolutionary rate is compatible with those observed in other bacteria. In contrast, if the claims of precolumbian venereal syphilis outside the Americas are taken into account, the place of origin remains unsolved. Finally, the endeavor of joining paleopathology and phylogenetics proved to be a fruitful and promising approach for the study of infectious diseases.

Thermal ionization mass spectrometry U-series dating of a hominid site near Nanjing, China

Mass spectrometric U-series dating of speleothems from Tangshan Cave, combined with ecological and paleoclimatic evidence, indicates that Nanjing Man, a typical Homo erectus morphologically correlated with Peking Man at Zhoukoudian, should be at least 580 k.y. old, or more likely lived during the glacial oxygen isotope stage 16 (similar to 620 ka). Such an age estimate, which is similar to 270 ka older than previous electron spin resonance and alpha counting U-series dates, has significant implications for the evolution of Asian H. erectus. Dentine and enamel samples from the coexisting fossil layer yield significantly younger apparent ages, that of the enamel sample being only less than one-fourth of the minimum age of Nanjing Man. This suggests that U uptake history is far more complex than existing models can handle. As a result, great care must be taken in the interpretation of electron spin resonance and U-series dates of fossil teeth.

La evolución del hombre : conceptos generales a la luz de la moderna teoría sintética de la evolución.

El ser humano se clasifica como perteneciente al orden de los primates, suborden antropoideos, superfamilia hominoideos, familia homínidos y género homo (Young, 1976) Muchos aspectos de la evolución humana, son todavía hipotéticos; sin embargo las secuencias evolutivas son:Aegyptopithecus, Ramapithecus, australopithecus africanus, driopithecus, homo habilis, homo erectus, homo sapiens, homo sapiens sapiens. La hominización debió llevarse a cabo de forma gradual, a través de una serie de pasos evolutivos que desembocaron en el estado de hominización del hombre moderno. Se ha aceptados que en la hominización interaccionaron una serie de procesos: posición bípeda, utilización y fabricación de instrumentos, evolución del cerebro (incremento de su tamaño), establecimiento de cambios (estructurales), organización social, evolución de la mente, lenguaje y cultura. La teoría sintética y evolución del hombre permite comprender coherentemente los mecanismos que intervinieron en la evolución humana y son dos: variabilidad genética y selección natural. La primera reforma a través de la recombinación genética y las mutaciones. Estas últimas son la base primaria de la variabilidad genética. Aunque las tasas de mutación son bajas, ocurren continuamente en las poblaciones naturales. La variabilidad genética, materia prima de la evolución no es suficiente para explicar la evolución. Es necesario recurrir al mecanismo que Darwin expuso de la selección natural de las especies sólo los más aptos sobreviven. La selección natural es determinista y finalista. Si partimos, de la idea de que la evolución del hombre, ahora estará mas determinada por la selección cultural que por la natural, está claro que el psicólogo debe participar en el futuro evolutivo del hombre.

Plant species and functional group effects on abiotic and microbial soil properties and plant-soil feedback responses in two grasslands

1 Plant species differ in their capacity to influence soil organic matter, soil nutrient availability and the composition of soil microbial communities. Their influences on soil properties result in net positive or negative feedback effects, which influence plant performance and plant community composition. 2 For two grassland systems, one on a sandy soil in the Netherlands and one on a chalk soil in the United Kingdom, we investigated how individual plant species grown in monocultures changed abiotic and biotic soil conditions. Then, we determined feedback effects of these soils to plants of the same or different species. Feedback effects were analysed at the level of plant species and plant taxonomic groups (grasses vs. forbs). 3 In the sandy soils, plant species differed in their effects on soil chemical properties, in particular potassium levels, but PLFA (phospholipid fatty acid) signatures of the soil microbial community did not differ between plant species. The effects of soil chemical properties were even greater when grasses and forbs were compared, especially because potassium levels were lower in grass monocultures. 4 In the chalk soil, there were no effects of plant species on soil chemical properties, but PLFA profiles differed significantly between soils from different monocultures. PLFA profiles differed between species, rather than between grasses and forbs. 5 In the feedback experiment, all plant species in sandy soils grew less vigorously in soils conditioned by grasses than in soils conditioned by forbs. These effects correlated significantly with soil chemical properties. None of the seven plant species showed significant differences between performance in soil conditioned by the same vs. other plant species. 6 In the chalk soil, Sanguisorba minor and in particular Briza media performed best in soil collected from conspecifics, while Bromus erectus performed best in soil from heterospecifics. There was no distinctive pattern between soils collected from forb and grass monocultures, and plant performance could not be related to soil chemical properties or PLFA signatures. 7 Our study shows that mechanisms of plant-soil feedback can depend on plant species, plant taxonomic (or functional) groups and site-specific differences in abiotic and biotic soil properties. Understanding how plant species can influence their rhizosphere, and how other plant species respond to these changes, will greatly enhance our understanding of the functioning and stability of ecosystems.

Statistical evaluation of alternative models of human evolution

An appropriate model of recent human evolution is not only important to understand our own history, but it is necessary to disentangle the effects of demography and selection on genome diversity. Although most genetic data support the view that our species originated recently in Africa, it is still unclear if it completely replaced former members of the Homo genus, or if some interbreeding occurred during its range expansion. Several scenarios of modern human evolution have been proposed on the basis of molecular and paleontological data, but their likelihood has never been statistically assessed. Using DNA data from 50 nuclear loci sequenced in African, Asian and Native American samples, we show here by extensive simulations that a simple African replacement model with exponential growth has a higher probability (78%) as compared with alternative multiregional evolution or assimilation scenarios. A Bayesian analysis of the data under this best supported model points to an origin of our species approximate to 141 thousand years ago (Kya), an exit out-of-Africa approximate to 51 Kya, and a recent colonization of the Americas approximate to 10.5 Kya. We also find that the African replacement model explains not only the shallow ancestry of mtDNA or Y-chromosomes but also the occurrence of deep lineages at some autosomal loci, which has been formerly interpreted as a sign of interbreeding with Homo erectus.

New age estimates for the Palaeolithic assemblages and Pleistocene succession of Casablanca, Morocco

Marine and aeolian Quaternary sediments from Casablanca, Morocco were dated using the optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) signal of quartz grains. These sediments form part of an extensive succession spanning the Pleistocene, and contain a rich faunal and archaeological record, including an Acheulian lithic assemblage from before the Brunhes–Matayama boundary, and a Homo erectus jaw from younger cave deposits. Sediment samples from the sites of Reddad Ben Ali, Oulad J’mel, Sidi Abderhamane and Thomas Quarries have been dated, in order to assess the upper limits of OSL. The revision of previously measured mammalian tooth enamel electron spin resonance (ESR) dates from the Grotte des Rhinocéros, Oulad Hamida Quarry 1, incorporating updated environmental dose rate measurements and attenuation calculations, also provide chronological constraint for the archaeological material preserved at Thomas Quarries. Several OSL age estimates extend back to around 500,000 years, with a single sample providing an OSL age close to 1 Ma in magnetically reversed sediments. These luminescence dates are some of the oldest determined, and their reliability is assessed using both internal criteria based on stratigraphic consistency, and external lithostratigraphic, morphostratigraphic and independent chronological constraints. For most samples, good internal agreement is observed using single aliquot regenerative-dose OSL measurements, while multiple aliquot additive-dose measurements generally have poorer resolution and consistency. Novel slow-component and component-resolved OSL approaches applied to four samples provide significantly enhanced dating precision, and an examination of the degree of signal zeroing at deposition. A comparison of the OSL age estimates with the updated ESR dates and one U-series date demonstrate that this method has great potential for providing reliable age estimates for sediments of this antiquity. We consider the cause of some slight age inversion observed at Thomas Quarries, and provide recommendations for further luminescence dating within this succession.

Avaliação do desempenho reprodutivo do Cavalo-Marinho Hippocampus reidi (GINSBURG 1933) do estuário do Rio Potengi (Rio Grande do Norte, Brasil) com vistas ao seu cultivo em bases sustentáveis

Os cavalos-marinhos têm cativado a imaginação e a curiosidade dos seres humanos por centenas de anos. No entanto, nos dias de hoje, esses animais correm um sério risco de extinção por fatores como a pesca desordenada para suprir os mercados de peixes ornamentais e da medicina tradicional chinesa e principalmente, a destruição do seu habitat. Nesse contexto, é crescente o número de estudos sobre a ecologia, a biologia (reprodutiva, especialmente) e o cultivo de várias espécies do gênero Hippocampus, inclusive para fins conservacionistas e de recomposição de estoques. Duas espécies de cavalos-marinhos são encontradas no Brasil: Hippocampus reidi Ginsburg 1933 e Hippocampus erectus Perry. No entanto, as informações sobre essas espécies estão basicamente restritas ao seu grau de ocorrência ou a sua área de ocupação. No presente estudo, foi avaliado o desempenho reprodutivo de Hippocampus reidi do estuário do rio Potengi (05° 47' 42'' S; 35° 12' 34'' W), em Natal, Rio Grande do Norte. Para tanto, cavalos-marinhos grávidos (n = 38) foram coletados no referido estuário nos meses de setembro, outubro e novembro de 2008 e julho, agosto, setembro e outubro de 2009 e mantidos em laboratório até que liberassem os filhotes. O comprimento padrão (CPA), altura (ATA), volume da bolsa (VB) e peso úmido (PuA) dos adultos, bem como o comprimento padrão (CPF), altura (ATF), peso úmido (PuF) e peso seco (PsF) dos filhotes foram determinados. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que houve correlações significativas entre o CPA e a ATA (r²=0,171), CPA e PuA (r²=0,624), CPA e VB (r²=0,256), ATA e PuA (r²=0,788), PuA e VB (r²=0,211), CPF e ATF (r²=0,903) e CPF e PsF (r²=0,163). A análise de correspondência (AC) que associou as classes do comprimento padrão dos adultos (CPA) e o volume da bolsa de H. reidi ao número de filhotes mostrou que animais entre 19 cm e 21 cm e com volume de bolsa entre 3 mL e 4 mL foram os que liberaram o maior número de filhotes. Os resultados do presente estudo também indicam que o tamanho mínimo de captura recomendado pela CITES (10 cm de altura) para H. reidi deve ser revisto, uma vez que não foram encontrados animais menores que 13,5 cm que estivessem grávidos. Finalmente, o número médio de filhotes por desova obtido no presente estudo (n = 775 ± 398 filhotes) realçou o potencial reprodutivo de H. reidi e a necessidade de estudos adicionais com esta espécie

Reproductive phenology of a northeast Brazilian mangrove community: Environmental and biotic constraints

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Morphological and molecular evidence for the occurrence of three Hippocampus species (Teleostei: Syngnathidae) in Brazil

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Analisi dei parametri vegetazionali e dei caratteri funzionali di specie guida come strumenti di studio di comunità prative

Lo studio condotto si propone l’approfondimento delle conoscenze sui processi di evoluzione spontanea di comunità vegetali erbacee di origine secondaria in cinque siti all’interno di un’area protetta del Parco di Monte Sole (Bologna, Italia), dove, come molte aree rurali marginali in Italia e in Europa, la cessazione o riduzione delle tradizionali pratiche gestionali negli ultimi cinquant’anni, ha determinato lo sviluppo di fitocenosi di ridotto valore floristico e produttivo. Tali siti si trovano in due aree distinte all’interno del parco, denominate Zannini e Stanzano, selezionate in quanto rappresentative di situazioni di comunità del Mesobrometo. Due siti appartenenti alla prima area e uno appartenente alla seconda, sono gestiti con sfalcio annuale, i rimanenti non hanno nessun tipo di gestione. Lo stato delle comunità erbacee di tali siti è stato valutato secondo più punti di vista. E’ stata fatta una caratterizzazione vegetazionale dei siti, mediante rilievo lineare secondo la metodologia Daget-Poissonet, permettendo una prima valutazione relativa al numero di specie presenti e alla loro abbondanza all’interno della comunità vegetale, determinando i Contributi Specifici delle famiglie principali e delle specie dominanti (B. pinnatum, B. erectus e D. glomerata). La produttività è stata calcolata utilizzando un indice di qualità foraggera, il Valore Pastorale, e con la determinazione della produzione di Fitomassa totale, Fitomassa fotosintetizzante e Necromassa. A questo proposito sono state trovate correlazioni negative tra la presenza di Graminacee, in particolare di B. pinnatum, e i Contributi Specifici delle altre specie, soprattutto a causa dello spesso strato di fitomassa e necromassa prodotto dallo stesso B. pinnatum che impedisce meccanicamente l’insediamento e la crescita di altre piante. E’ stata inoltre approfonditamente sviluppata un terza caratterizzazione, che si propone di quantificare la diversità funzionale dei siti medesimi, interpretando le risposte della vegetazione a fattori globali di cambiamento, sia abiotici che biotici, per cogliere gli effetti delle variazioni ambientali in atto sulla comunità, e più in generale, sull’intero ecosistema. In particolare, nello studio condotto, sono stati proposti alcuni caratteri funzionali, cosiddetti functional traits, scelti perch�� correlati all’acquisizione e alla conservazione delle risorse, e quindi al trade-off dei nutrienti all’interno della pianta, ossia: Superficie Fogliare Specifica, SLA, Tenore di Sostanza Secca, LDMC, Concentrazione di Azoto Fogliare, LNC, Contenuto in Fibra, LFC, separato nelle componenti di Emicellulosa, Cellulosa, Lignina e Ceneri. Questi caratteri sono stati misurati in relazione a tre specie dominanti: B. pinnatum, B. erectus e D. glomerata. Si tratta di specie comunemente presenti nelle praterie semi-mesofile dell’Appennino Settentrionale, ma caratterizzate da differenti proprietà ecologiche e adattative: B. pinnatum e B. erectus sono considerati competitori stress-toleranti, tipicamente di ambienti poveri di risorse, mentre D. glomerata, è una specie più mesofila, caratteristica di ambienti produttivi. Attraverso l’analisi dei traits in riferimento alle diverse strategie di queste specie, sono stati descritti specifici adattamenti alle variazioni delle condizioni ambientali, ed in particolare in risposta al periodo di stress durante l’estate dovuto a deficit idrico e in risposta alla diversa modalità di gestione dei siti, ossia alla pratica o meno dello sfalcio annuale. Tra i caratteri funzionali esaminati, è stato identificato LDMC come il migliore per descrivere le specie, in quanto più facilmente misurabile, meno variabile, e direttamente correlato con altri traits come SLA e le componenti della fibra. E’ stato quindi proposto il calcolo di un indice globale per caratterizzare i siti in esame, che tenesse conto di tutti questi aspetti, riunendo insieme sia i parametri di tipo vegetativo e produttivo, che i parametri funzionali. Tale indice ha permesso di disporre i siti lungo un gradiente e di cogliere differenti risposte in relazione a variazioni stagionali tra primavera o autunno e in relazione al tipo di gestione, valutando le posizioni occupate dai siti stessi e la modalità dei loro eventuali spostamenti lungo questo gradiente. Al fine di chiarire se le variazioni dei traits rilevate fossero dovute ad adattamento fenotipico dei singoli individui alle condizioni ambientali, o piuttosto fossero dovute a differenziazione genotipica tra popolazioni cresciute in siti diversi, è stato proposto un esperimento in condizioni controllate. All’interno di un’area naturale in UK, le Chiltern Hills, sono stati selezionati cinque siti, caratterizzati da diverse età di abbandono: Bradenham Road MaiColtivato e Small Dean MaiColtivato, di cui non si conosce storia di coltivazione, caratterizzati rispettivamente da vegetazione arborea e arbustiva prevalente, Butterfly Bank 1970, non più coltivato dal 1970, oggi prateria seminaturale occasionalmente pascolata, Park Wood 2001, non più coltivato dal 2001, oggi prateria seminaturale mantenuta con sfalcio annuale, e infine Manor Farm Coltivato, attualmente arato e coltivato. L’esperimento è stato condotto facendo crescere i semi delle tre specie più comuni, B. sylvaticum, D. glomerata e H. lanatus provenienti dai primi quattro siti, e semi delle stesse specie acquistati commercialmente, nei cinque differenti tipi di suolo dei medesimi siti. Sono stati misurati quattro caratteri funzionali: Massa Radicale Secca (DRM), Massa Epigea Secca (DBM), Superficie Fogliare Secca (SLA) e Tenore di Sostanza Secca (LDMC). I risultati ottenuti hanno evidenziato che ci sono significative differenze tra le popolazioni di una stessa specie ma con diversa provenienza, e tra individui appartenenti alla stessa popolazione se fatti crescere in suoli diversi. Tuttavia, queste differenze, sembrano essere dovute ad adattamenti locali legati alla presenza di nutrienti, in particolare N e P, nel suolo piuttosto che a sostanziali variazioni genotipiche tra popolazioni. Anche per questi siti è stato costruito un gradiente sulla base dei quattro caratteri funzionali analizzati. La disposizione dei siti lungo il gradiente ha evidenziato tre gruppi distinti: i siti più giovani, Park Wood 2001 e Manor Farm Coltivato, nettamente separati da Butterfly Bank 1970, e seguiti infine da Small Dean MaiColtivato e Bradenham Road MaiColtivato. L’applicazione di un indice così proposto potrebbe rivelarsi un utile strumento per descrivere ed indagare lo stato della prateria e dei processi evolutivi in atto, al fine di meglio comprendere e dominare tali dinamiche per proporre sistemi di gestione che ne consentano la conservazione anche in assenza delle tradizionali cure colturali.

Statistical evaluation of alternative models of human evolution

An appropriate model of recent human evolution is not only important to understand our own history, but it is necessary to disentangle the effects of demography and selection on genome diversity. Although most genetic data support the view that our species originated recently in Africa, it is still unclear if it completely replaced former members of the Homo genus, or if some interbreeding occurred during its range expansion. Several scenarios of modern human evolution have been proposed on the basis of molecular and paleontological data, but their likelihood has never been statistically assessed. Using DNA data from 50 nuclear loci sequenced in African, Asian and Native American samples, we show here by extensive simulations that a simple African replacement model with exponential growth has a higher probability (78%) as compared with alternative multiregional evolution or assimilation scenarios. A Bayesian analysis of the data under this best supported model points to an origin of our species approximately 141 thousand years ago (Kya), an exit out-of-Africa approximately 51 Kya, and a recent colonization of the Americas approximately 10.5 Kya. We also find that the African replacement model explains not only the shallow ancestry of mtDNA or Y-chromosomes but also the occurrence of deep lineages at some autosomal loci, which has been formerly interpreted as a sign of interbreeding with Homo erectus.

Species mobility and frequency dynamics in a Swiss limestone grassland

Community dynamics in a calcareous grassland (Mesobrometum) in Egerkingen (Jura mountains, Switzerland) were investigated for 53 non-woody species in 25 1-m2 plots over 6 years. 50 0.0 1-m2 subplots per plot were recorded. The derived variables were spatial frequency, temporal frequency, frequency fluctuation, turnover, and cumulative frequency (each species), and cumulative species richness (all species). Spectra for 53 species of all variables were different for the two investigated spatial scales (0.0 1 m2, 1 m2). The comparison with other investigations of similar grass lands showed that the behaviour of some species is specific for this type of vegetation in general (e.g. Achillea millefolium, Arrhenatherum elatius, Bromus erectus ), but most species behaved in a stand-specific way, i.e. they may play another (similar or completely different) role in another grassland stand. Six spatio-temporal patterns were defined across species. To understand community dynamics, not only the dynamics of mobility but also of frequency fluctuations and spatial distribution of the species are fundamental. In addition, the understanding of temporal behaviour of all species present should be included. Averages always hide important information of vegetation dynamics, as was shown by the present investigation.