Antigen-specific CD4 cells assist CD8 T-effector cells in eliminating keratinocytes

Keratinocytes expressing tumor or viral antigens can be eliminated by antigen-primed CD8 cytotoxic T cells. CD4 T-helper cells help induction of CD8 cytotoxic T cells from naive precursors and generation of CD8 T-cell memory. In this study, we show, unexpectedly, that CD4 cells are also required to assist primed CD8 effector T cells in rejection of skin expressing human growth hormone, a neo-self-antigen, in keratinocytes. The requirement for CD4 cells can be substituted by CD40 costimulation. Rejection of skin expressing ovalbumin (OVA), a non-self-antigen, by primed CD8 cytotoxic T cells can in contrast occur without help from antigen-specific CD4 T cells. However, rejection of OVA expressing keratinocytes is helped by antigen-specific CD4 T cells if only low numbers of primed or naive OVA-specific CD8 T cells are available. Effective immunotherapy directed at antigens expressed in squamous cancer may therefore be facilitated by induction of tumor antigen-specific CD4 helper T cells, as well as cytotoxic CD8 T cells.

A combination of local inflammation and central memory T cells potentiates immunotherapy in the skin

Adoptive T cell therapy uses the specificity of the adaptive immune system to target cancer and virally infected cells. Yet the mechanism and means by which to enhance T cell function are incompletely described, especially in the skin. In this study, we use a murine model of immunotherapy to optimize cell-mediated immunity in the skin. We show that in vitro - derived central but not effector memory-like T cells bring about rapid regression of skin-expressing cognate Ag as a transgene in keratinocytes. Local inflammation induced by the TLR7 receptor agonist imiquimod subtly yet reproducibly decreases time to skin graft rejection elicited by central but not effector memory T cells in an immunodeficient mouse model. Local CCL4, a chemokine liberated by TLR7 agonism, similarly enhances central memory T cell function. In this model, IL-2 facilitates the development in vivo of effector function from central memory but not effector memory T cells. In a model of T cell tolerogenesis, we further show that adoptively transferred central but not effector memory T cells can give rise to successful cutaneous immunity, which is dependent on a local inflammatory cue in the target tissue at the time of adoptive T cell transfer. Thus, adoptive T cell therapy efficacy can be enhanced if CD8+ T cells with a central memory T cell phenotype are transferred, and IL-2 is present with contemporaneous local inflammation. Copyright © 2012 by The American Association of Immunologists, Inc.

Genetic aspects of outcome in kidney transplantation: cytokine and thrombosis associated candidate genes and gene expression biomarkers

Kidney transplantation (Tx) is the treatment of choice for end stage renal disease. Immunosuppressive medications are given to prevent an immunological rejection of the transplant. However, immunosuppressive drugs increase e.g. the risk of infection, cancer or nephrotoxicity. A major genetic contributors to immunological acceptance of the graft are human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes. Also other non-HLA gene polymorphisms may predict the future risk of complications before Tx, possibly enabling individualised immunotherapy. Graft function after Tx is monitored using non-specific clinical symptoms and laboratory markers. The definitive diagnosis of graft rejection however relies on a biopsy of the graft. In the acute rejection (AR) diagnostics there is a need for an alternative to biopsy that would be an easily repeatable and simple method for regular use. Frequent surveillance of acute or subclinical rejection (SCR) may improve long-term function. In this thesis, associations between cytokine and thrombosis associated candidate genes and the outcome of kidney Tx were studied. Cytotoxic and co-stimulatory T lymphocyte molecule gene expression biomarkers for the diagnosis of the AR and the SCR were also investigated. We found that polymorphisms in the cytokine genes tumor necrosis factor and interleukin 10 (IL10) of the recipients were associated with AR. In addition, certain IL10 gene polymorphisms of the donors were associated with the incidence of cytomegalovirus infection and occurrence of later infection in a subpopulation of recipients. Further, polymorphisms in genes related to the risk of thrombosis and those of certain cytokines were not associated with the occurrence of thrombosis, infarction, AR or graft survival. In the study of biomarkers for AR, whole blood samples were prospectively collected from adult kidney Tx patients. With real-time quantitative PCR (RT-QPCR) gene expression quantities of CD154 and ICOS differentiated the patients with AR from those without, but not from the patients with other causes of graft dysfunction. Biomarkers for SCR were studied in paediatric kidney Tx patients. We used RT-QPCR to quantify the gene expression of immunological candidate genes in a low-density array format. In addition, we used RT-QPCR to validate the results of the microarray analysis. No gene marker differentiated patients with SCR from those without SCR. This research demonstrates the lack of robust markers among polymorphisms or biomarkers in investigated genes that could be included in routine analysis in a clinical laboratory. In genetic studies, kidney Tx can be regarded as a complex trait, i.e. several environmental and genetic factors may determine its outcome. A number of currently unknown genetic factors probably influence the results of Tx.

Avaliação do PRA e CD30s no transplante renal intervivos. Acompanhamento no 1 ano e após 6 anos em pacientes do Hospital Federal de Bonsucesso (Rio de Janeiro, Brasil)

O CD30 solúvel (CD30s) é uma glicoproteína transmembrana da família do fator de necrose tumoral expressa na superfície das células T. Quando este marcador é clivado ele torna-se solúvel, sendo detectado na circulação. Atualmente, o valor de CD30s pré-transplante vem sido demonstrado como um bom preditor de rejeição aguda (RA) e perda do enxerto. Poucos estudos foram realizados para sua avaliação no pós-transplante e sua correlação com sobrevida e TFG. Avaliar a eficácia da determinação dos marcadores laboratoriais CD30 solúvel (CD30s) e anticorpos reativos contra painel HLA (PRA) em seis meses, um ano e seis anos pós-transplante renal em receptores de doadores vivos, correlacionando estes marcadores com episódios de rejeição aguda, eventos infecciosos no pós-transplante, perda do enxerto e óbito do paciente transplantado. E, avaliar a correlação destes marcadores com a sobrevida do enxerto renal nestes períodos. Os pacientes estudados foram transplantados renais com doadores vivos no Hospital Federal de Bonsucesso (HFB) do Rio de Janeiro no ano de 2006 e do período de agosto de 2010 a maio de 2011, sendo uma extensão de um trabalho realizado previamente. CD30s e PRA foram analisados nas amostras coletadas no pré-transplante e com 7, 14, 21 dias, 1, 3, 6, 12 meses após o transplante e nos pacientes transplantados em 2006 amostras após 6 anos de transplante. A taxa de filtração glomerular (TFG) foi estimada utilizando MDRD e CKD-epi e 6 meses, 1 ano e 6 anos após o transplante. Os pacientes foram agrupados em 5 grupos: sem eventos, com perda do enxerto, óbito, rejeição aguda e pacientes com quadros infecciosos. Estes grupos foram avaliados com relação ao CD30s, PRA I e II e comparados dois a dois. O teste qui quadrado foi utilizado. Quando necessário aplicou-se a correção de Yates, o teste de Fisher, o teste de Kruskal-wallis. Foi considerado estatisticamente significante p<0,05. As análises foram feitas pelo programa EPI-Info (versão 3.5.3). Setenta e seis pacientes com doadores vivos foram incluídos no estudo 47 pacientes não tiveram nenhum evento (grupo 1), 7 pacientes perderam o enxerto (grupo 2), 3 pacientes faleceram (grupo 3), 11 pacientes ficaram no grupo de rejeição aguda (grupo 4) e oito pacientes tiveram infecção por CMV e herpes (grupo 5). Os pacientes do grupo de RA tiveram correlação positiva com os valores tanto de CD30s Pré-transplante (p=0,01), quanto do CD30s pós-transplante (p=0,002) e PRA I e II (p<0,001), respectivamente, quando comparados com pacientes sem eventos. A TFG tanto com MDRD e CKD-Epi não mostrou correlação com CD30s pré e pós-transplante e nem PRA I e II. A TFG com as duas fórmulas foi menor no grupo com RA comparado com o grupo sem evento após 6 anos de transplante (p=0,006). CD30s é um bom preditor de RA, assim como PRAI e II. E, também mais uma ferramenta que pode ser utilizada no acompanhamento pós-transplante Renal. A RA é um preditor isolado para diminuição de TFG no transplante.

Expressão de marcadores imuno-histoquímicos em biópsias renais de pacientes transplantados

A partir da década de 60, com a utilização do transplante renal em larga escala como terapia substitutiva para pacientes com falência do órgão, surgiu a preocupação quanto ao desenvolvimento do processo de rejeição do enxerto. Tal intercorrência, em geral, cursa com sinais e sintomas clínicos apenas quando o evento está bem estabelecido, ou mesmo quando lesões irreversíveis já se instalaram. Assim, é fundamental um acompanhamento rigoroso, visando detectar os casos subclínicos. O presente trabalho, a fim de fornecer novas ferramentas que auxiliem o diagnóstico precoce de rejeição do enxerto, avaliou a expressão imuno-histoquímica dos anticorpos CD3, CD5, CD20, CD68, CD25, FoxP3 e C4d em biópsias renais realizadas entre os anos de 2007 e 2009 em pacientes transplantados acompanhados pelo Serviço de Nefrologia do Hospital Universitário Pedro Ernesto, UERJ - RJ, correlacionando os resultados obtidos com o diagnóstico histológico. Para tal, as biópsias foram reavaliadas por três médicos patologistas que as classificaram, segundo Critérios de Banff 2007, quanto à presença ou não de rejeição do enxerto e seu tipo, aguda ou crônica. A partir de então, os blocos de parafina foram processados pela técnica Tissue Microarray for all (Pires, ARC. e cols.) e submetidos à imuno-histoquímica. A positividade dos marcadores foi avaliada e graduada e os resultados encontrados foram correlacionados, em um primeiro momento, com a presença ou ausência de rejeição. Posteriormente, os casos com diagnóstico histológico de rejeição tiveram seu perfil imuno-histoquímico analisado em função da positividade para C4d, marcador definidor de rejeição humoral. Neste momento, buscou-se averiguar se os anticorpos estudados seriam úteis em detectar, neste grupo, rejeição humoral e celular. Após a análise estatística, realizada pelo Teste Exato de Fisher, pode-se, então, concluir que o comportamento do marcador CD3 é capaz de inferir a presença de rejeição e que os anticorpos CD5 e CD25 permitem sugerir rejeição celular e humoral, respectivamente. Foi observado também que casos sem diagnóstico histológico de rejeição podem apresentar marcação para C4d em mais de 10% de seus capilares peritubulares.

The role of B cells in solid organ transplantation.

The role of antibodies in chronic injury to organ transplants has been suggested for many years, but recently emphasized by new data. We have observed that when immunosuppressive potency decreases either by intentional weaning of maintenance agents or due to homeostatic repopulation after immune cell depletion, the threshold of B cell activation may be lowered. In human transplant recipients the result may be donor-specific antibody, C4d+ injury, and chronic rejection. This scenario has precise parallels in a rhesus monkey renal allograft model in which T cells are depleted with CD3 immunotoxin, or in a CD52-T cell transgenic mouse model using alemtuzumab to deplete T cells. Such animal models may be useful for the testing of therapeutic strategies to prevent DSA. We agree with others who suggest that weaning of immunosuppression may place transplant recipients at risk of chronic antibody-mediated rejection, and that strategies to prevent this scenario are needed if we are to improve long-term graft and patient outcomes in transplantation. We believe that animal models will play a crucial role in defining the pathophysiology of antibody-mediated rejection and in developing effective therapies to prevent graft injury. Two such animal models are described herein.

Enhanced de novo alloantibody and antibody-mediated injury in rhesus macaques.

Chronic allograft rejection is a major impediment to long-term transplant success. Humoral immune responses to alloantigens are a growing clinical problem in transplantation, with mounting evidence associating alloantibodies with the development of chronic rejection. Nearly a third of transplant recipients develop de novo antibodies, for which no established therapies are effective at preventing or eliminating, highlighting the need for a nonhuman primate model of antibody-mediated rejection. In this report, we demonstrate that depletion using anti-CD3 immunotoxin (IT) combined with maintenance immunosuppression that included tacrolimus with or without alefacept reliably prolonged renal allograft survival in rhesus monkeys. In these animals, a preferential skewing toward CD4 repopulation and proliferation was observed, particularly with the addition of alefacept. Furthermore, alefacept-treated animals demonstrated increased alloantibody production (100%) and morphologic features of antibody-mediated injury. In vitro, alefacept was found to enhance CD4 effector memory T cell proliferation. In conclusion, alefacept administration after depletion and with tacrolimus promotes a CD4+memory T cell and alloantibody response, with morphologic changes reflecting antibody-mediated allograft injury. Early and consistent de novo alloantibody production with associated histological changes makes this nonhuman primate model an attractive candidate for evaluating targeted therapeutics.

Interleukin-15 receptor blockade in non-human primate kidney transplantation.

BACKGROUND: Interleukin (IL)-15 is a chemotactic factor to T cells. It induces proliferation and promotes survival of activated T cells. IL-15 receptor blockade in mouse cardiac and islet allotransplant models has led to long-term engraftment and a regulatory T-cell environment. This study investigated the efficacy of IL-15 receptor blockade using Mut-IL-15/Fc in an outbred non-human primate model of renal allotransplantation. METHODS: Male cynomolgus macaque donor-recipient pairs were selected based on ABO typing, major histocompatibility complex class I typing, and carboxy-fluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester-based mixed lymphocyte responses. Once animals were assigned to one of six treatment groups, they underwent renal transplantation and bilateral native nephrectomy. Serum creatinine level was monitored twice weekly and as indicated, and protocol biopsies were performed. Rejection was defined as a increase in serum creatinine to 1.5 mg/dL or higher and was confirmed histologically. Complete blood counts and flow cytometric analyses were performed periodically posttransplant; pharmacokinetic parameters of Mut-IL-15/Fc were assessed. RESULTS: Compared with control animals, Mut-IL-15/Fc-treated animals did not demonstrate increased graft survival despite adequate serum levels of Mut-IL-15/Fc. Flow cytometric analysis of white blood cell subgroups demonstrated a decrease in CD8 T-cell and natural killer cell numbers, although this did not reach statistical significance. Interestingly, two animals receiving Mut-IL-15/Fc developed infectious complications, but no infection was seen in control animals. Renal pathology varied widely. CONCLUSIONS: Peritransplant IL-15 receptor blockade does not prolong allograft survival in non-human primate renal transplantation; however, it reduces the number of CD8 T cells and natural killer cells in the peripheral blood.

Impact of Leukocyte Function-Associated Antigen-1 Blockade on Endogenous Allospecific T Cells to Multiple Minor Histocompatibility Antigen Mismatched Cardiac Allograft.

BACKGROUND: Blocking leukocyte function-associated antigen (LFA)-1 in organ transplant recipients prolongs allograft survival. However, the precise mechanisms underlying the therapeutic potential of LFA-1 blockade in preventing chronic rejection are not fully elucidated. Cardiac allograft vasculopathy (CAV) is the preeminent cause of late cardiac allograft failure characterized histologically by concentric intimal hyperplasia. METHODS: Anti-LFA-1 monoclonal antibody was used in a multiple minor antigen-mismatched, BALB.B (H-2B) to C57BL/6 (H-2B), cardiac allograft model. Endogenous donor-specific CD8 T cells were tracked down using major histocompatibility complex multimers against the immunodominant H4, H7, H13, H28, and H60 minor Ags. RESULTS: The LFA-1 blockade prevented acute rejection and preserved palpable beating quality with reduced CD8 T-cell graft infiltration. Interestingly, less CD8 T cell infiltration was secondary to reduction of T-cell expansion rather than less trafficking. The LFA-1 blockade significantly suppressed the clonal expansion of minor histocompatibility antigen-specific CD8 T cells during the expansion and contraction phase. The CAV development was evaluated with morphometric analysis at postoperation day 100. The LFA-1 blockade profoundly attenuated neointimal hyperplasia (61.6 vs 23.8%; P < 0.05), CAV-affected vessel number (55.3 vs 15.9%; P < 0.05), and myocardial fibrosis (grade 3.29 vs 1.8; P < 0.05). Finally, short-term LFA-1 blockade promoted long-term donor-specific regulation, which resulted in attenuated transplant arteriosclerosis. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, LFA-1 blockade inhibits initial endogenous alloreactive T-cell expansion and induces more regulation. Such a mechanism supports a pulse tolerance induction strategy with anti-LFA-1 rather than long-term treatment.

A model of sequential heart and composite tissue allotransplant in rats.

BACKGROUND: Some of the 600,000 patients with solid organ allotransplants need reconstruction with a composite tissue allotransplant, such as the hand, abdominal wall, or face. The aim of this study was to develop a rat model for assessing the effects of a secondary composite tissue allotransplant on a primary heart allotransplant. METHODS: Hearts of Wistar Kyoto rats were harvested and transplanted heterotopically to the neck of recipient Fisher 344 rats. The anastomoses were performed between the donor brachiocephalic artery and the recipient left common carotid artery, and between the donor pulmonary artery and the recipient external jugular vein. Recipients received cyclosporine A for 10 days only. Heart rate was assessed noninvasively. The sequential composite tissue allotransplant consisted of a 3 x 3-cm abdominal musculocutaneous flap harvested from Lewis rats and transplanted to the abdomen of the heart allotransplant recipients. The abdominal flap vessels were connected to the femoral vessels. No further immunosuppression was administered following the composite tissue allotransplant. Ten days after composite tissue allotransplantation, rejection of the heart and abdominal flap was assessed histologically. RESULTS: The rat survival rate of the two-stage transplant surgery was 80 percent. The transplanted heart rate decreased from 150 +/- 22 beats per minute immediately after transplant to 83 +/- 12 beats per minute on day 20 (10 days after stopping immunosuppression). CONCLUSIONS: This sequential allotransplant model is technically demanding. It will facilitate investigation of the effects of a secondary composite tissue allotransplant following primary solid organ transplantation and could be useful in developing future immunotherapeutic strategies.

Hemolymph Functions In Mytilus-Californianus - Cytochemistry Of Hemocytes And Their Responses To Foreign Implants And Hemolymph Factors In Phagocytosis

The hemocytes of Mytilus californianus are of three types: small and large basophils and large granular acidophils. The basophils contain lysosomal enzymes and phagocytose colloidal carbon. Agglutinins for yeast and human A Rh+ve erythrocytes are present in plasma, but are not needed for effective phagocytosis; in vitro both acidophilic and basophilic hemocytes rapidly phagocytose these particles. Plasma proteins, analyzed electrophoretically, are under strong homeostatic control. When Mya arenaria mantle is placed orthotopically on M. californianus mantle, the implant is invaded by host hemocytes in a manner consistent with that described in other published reports on molluscan graft rejection. Steady state is achieved by 26 days postimplant. Second- and third-set implants are rejected more rapidly than are first-set implants, but this is not a specific response. Third-set implants elicit a host cellular response that is more localized than the response to first-set implants. These data do not permit conclusions with respect to memory in these molluscan immune responses, but do imply a qualitative “improvement” in this quasi-immune response of M. californianus.

Hemopoietic chimerism following stem cell transplantation

Hematopoietic chimerism is a measure of the number of donor and recipient cells in the host following stem cell transplantation (SCT). The type of conditioning therapy prior to SCT has a major impact on the chimeric status in the recipient. Different techniques of measurement have varying sensitivities. The use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of short tandem repeats (STR) using fluorescent amplification permits quantification using Genescan analysis. When SCT is used for malignant haematological disorders, measurement of chimeric status may indicate early relapse and in aplastic anemia graft rejection. Reduced intensity or T-cell depletion is associated with mixed haemopoietic chimerism. SCT for benign haematological disorders does not require complete donor chimerism for a successful outcome.

Leukaemic transformation of donor cells in a patient receiving a second allogeneic bone marrow transplant for severe aplastic anaemia

Allogeneic blood or bone marrow transplantation is a successful treatment for leukaemia and severe aplastic anaemia (SAA). Graft rejection following transplantation for leukaemia is a rare event but leukaemic relapse may occur at varying rates, depending upon the stage of leukaemia at which the transplant was undertaken and the type of leukaemia. Relapse is generally assumed to occur in residual host cells, which are refractory to, or escape from the myeloablative conditioning therapy. Rare cases have been described, however, in which the leukaemia recurs in cells of donor origin. Lack of a successful outcome of blood or bone marrow transplantation for severe aplastic anaemia (SAA), however, is due to late graft rejection or graft-versus-host disease. Leukaemia in cells of donor origin has rarely been reported in patients following allogeneic bone marrow transplantation for SAA. This report describes leukaemic transformation in donor cells following a second allogeneic BMT for severe aplastic anaemia. PCR of short tandem repeats in bone marrow aspirates and in colonies derived from BFUE and CFU-GM indicated the donor origin of leukaemia. Donor leukaemia is a rare event following transplantation for severe aplastic anaemia but may represent the persistence or perturbation of a stromal defect in these patients inducing leukaemic change in donor haemopoietic stem cells.