Workflow patterns as a means to model task succession in games – a preliminary case study

Over about the last decade, people involved in game development have noted the need for more formal models and tools to support the design phase of games. It is argued that the present lack of such formal tools is currently hindering knowledge transfer among designers. Formal visual languages, on the other hand, can help to more effectively express, abstract and communicate game design concepts. Moreover, formal tools can assist in the prototyping phase, allowing designers to reason about and simulate game mechanics on an abstract level. In this paper we present an initial investigation into whether workflow patterns – which have already proven to be effective for modeling business processes – are a suitable way to model task succession in games. Our preliminary results suggest that workflow patterns show promise in this regard but some limitations, especially in regard to time constraints, currently restrict their potential.

Ball possession effectiveness in men's and women's elite basketball according to situational variables in different game periods

The aim of the present study was to identify the importance of floorball tactical variables to predict ball possession effectiveness, when controlling quality of opposition and game periods. The sample was composed by 1500 ball possessions, corresponding to 14 games randomly selected from the International Championships played during 2008 and 2010 (World Championship, Four nations tournament and classificatory phases for World Championship) by teams from different competition levels (HIGH, INTERMEDIATE and LOW). The effects of the predictor variables on successful ball possessions according to the three game contexts (HIGH vs. HIGH; HIGH vs. LOW; LOW vs. LOW games) were analyzed using Binomial Logistic Regressions. The results showed no interaction with the game period. In HIGH vs. HIGH games, quality of opposition showed an association with ball possession effectiveness with ending zone, offensive system, possession duration, height of shooting and defensive pressures previous to the shot. In HIGH vs. LOW games the important factors were the starting zone, possession duration, defensive pressure previous to the last pass and to the shot, technique of shooting and the number players involved in each ball possession. Finally, in LOW vs. LOW games, the results emphasized the importance of starting and ending zones, the number of passes used and the technique of shooting. In conclusion, elite floorball performance is mainly affected by quality of opposition showing different game patterns in each context that should be considered by coaches when preparing practices and competitions.

A estrutura da brincadeira e a regulação das relações

A brincadeira tradicional de rua é um fenômeno paradigmático da organização social de crianças e da cultura infantil. O estudo das brincadeiras tradicionais infantis possibilita a investigação de um fenômeno "espontâneo", sem o planejamento adulto e sem o recurso da escrita. Cada brincadeira, em cada cultura, possui uma estrutura peculiar que a define. A estrutura da brincadeira, no geral determina o desenrolar dos acontecimentos no jogo, prevendo padrões, estratégias e sanções típicas. Apesar desta estrutura ter sua origem histórica nas relações, constitui um elemento supra-relacional, ritualizado. Cada característica estrutural, verbalmente codificada, existe independente das relações, é um dos seus determinantes. Na verdade, a estrutura de uma brincadeira não determina totalmente e linearmente as interações entre os sujeitos de modo a eliminar as peculiaridades das relações; a estrutura interage com as relações anteriormente dadas. As interações nas brincadeiras serão fruto do institucionalmente dado e das relações entre seus membros. A partir de exemplos de brincadeiras tradicionais tais como, peteca (bola de gude), papagaio, tratos, elástico e outras, serão analisados aspectos estruturais que condicionam e interagem com as relações. Acredita-se que a investigação de tais fatores seja importante tanto para melhor descrição da brincadeira quanto para compreensão das relações entre os membros do grupo bem como da transmissão da cultura da brincadeira.

Validação de uma estrutura de análise ofensiva no basquetebol baseada no sequenciamento de dinâmicas de criação de espaço

A inferência de estratégias ofensivas em esportes coletivos pode ser realizada a partir da análise dos padrões de jogo observados durante a disputa. Para que isso ocorra, há a necessidade da formalização de classes de comportamentos específicos para a modalidade de forma a discriminar perfis de jogo com base na identificação das ações mais recorrentes. No basquetebol as ações são encadeadas ao longo da posse de bola, sendo que os diferentes tipos de sequências de ações contêm características que os diferenciam e podem influenciar diretamente no desfecho do ataque. Nesse trabalho foi apresentada uma proposta contendo diferentes possibilidades de sequenciamento de dinâmicas ofensivas baseadas em um modelo teórico descrito na literatura. Os procedimentos de validação do sequenciamento de dinâmicas ofensivas e os testes de reprodutibilidade e objetividade realizados junto a técnicos de basquetebol apresentaram valores elevados demonstrando a consistência dos critérios para a elaboração de 27 tipos de concatenações dependentes (Qui-quadrado >0,78). Além disso, a estrutura desenvolvida foi concluída através da aplicação do constructo a jogos de basquetebol da liga profissional Americana (NBA) (28 partidas, dentre as quais 10 partidas do confronto entre Spurs x Thunder, 10 partidas referentes ao confronto entre Heat e Pacers e 8 partidas da disputa envolvendo Heat e Spurs, sendo analisados ambos os ataques em cada confronto, válidos pela temporada regular e na fase de playoffs). Os resultados gerados a partir da análise foram apresentados através de árvores de decisão e grafos de modo a facilitar a visualização dos comportamentos identificados. A árvore de decisão apresentou as ações na sequência exata em que ocorreram nas posses de bola, enquanto os grafos mostraram os encadeamentos mais recorrentes entre duas dinâmicas ofensivas. Assim ambas as técnicas se mostraram complementares e auxiliaram na observação e análise dos perfis de jogo de cada equipe e na realização de inferências acerca de sua estratégia ofensiva. A formalização dos tipos de sequenciamento de ações ofensivas pode auxiliar treinadores e profissionais do basquetebol no desenho de estratégias, análise dos padrões de suas equipes e adversários e estruturação de sessões de treinamento que considerem os comportamentos ofensivos de modo dinâmico e contextualizado dentro de um encadeamento lógico de ações de jogo

Relatório de estágio profissionalizante : equipa profissional do Estoril-Praia, Departamento de Análise de Jogo

A importância da observação e análise de jogo no futebol tem crescido substancialmente nos últimos anos. As diferentes disposições tácticas e padrões comportamentais de jogo que se tem verificado, a exigência competitiva a que assistimos actualmente tem levado os clubes a investirem na formação e contratação de profissionais nesta área, potenciando, desta forma, a performance e sucesso das equipas. Este documento procura caracterizar e descrever um ano de estágio inserido no departamento de análise de jogo na equipa profissional sénior do Estoril-Praia Futebol, SAD. Os principais objectivos deste processo foram: (1) contribuir para o desenvolvimento do departamento de análise de jogo, criando um documento em software Excel que permitisse maior organização e rigor na análise e tratamento da informação, (2) organizar os dados para que estes pudessem ser facilmente interpretados por equipa técnica e jogadores. Para além do trabalho realizado ao longo de toda a época na área da análise de jogo, este documento contêm ainda dois estudos realizados com a equipa sénior do Estoril-Praia, Futebol SAD: (1) estudo de grupo que aborda o nível de coesão da equipa e (2) um estudo de investigação que procura avaliar os comportamentos da equipa quando está organizada ou em recuperação defensiva.

Patterns in the lottery game

The present study is based on the analysis and results of a close to 5 years’ study in the frame which we used a “Lottery Game” in the "Decision Making Skills" subject taught at Corvinus Business School, Corvinus University of Budapest. In the frame of the "game", the students (Hungarians (n=231) and foreigners (n=267) alike) have to mark 6 numbers on a 7x7 lottery ticket. The winner is the student whose numbers differ the most from those of all the other students’. Upon analyzing the results (irrespectively of nationality) the authors have noted something notable: the winning combinations - rather than being located randomly on the ticket, characteristically resemble a geometric form. In our study we wanted to detect the relevance of geometry in this kind of choices. It is hypothesized that in such games (lottery type, related to numeric combination choice), where the players decide upon their strategy (choice of numbers) by also taking into consideration others’ expected choices, the winning strategy is characteristically some consciously chosen scheme or pattern as opposed to a random one. The study presents the results of the available samples (Hungarian students: n=231, foreign students: n=267), the winning combinations, the most often designated numbers, as well as the least “popular” numbers and their presentation on a "heat map". In the case of the majority of the winning tickets we found the use of conscious strategic choice to be more useful. These conscious strategic decisions were reflected in identifiable geometric forms. Based on the results, we hypothesize that in the "hidden lottery" game – in contrast with random choice – the most effective strategy of choice is the conscious ordered one in which the player marks the numbers on the lottery ticket in some modified geometric pattern. The goal of the paper is to propose further research on the field.

Digital anthropology and educational eGames: learning through behavioural patterns in digital, game-based contexts

The selected publications are focused on the relations between users, eGames and the educational context, and how they interact together, so that both learning and user performance are improved through feedback provision. A key part of this analysis is the identification of behavioural, anthropological patterns, so that users can be clustered based on their actions, and the steps taken in the system (e.g. social network, online community, or virtual campus). In doing so, we can analyse large data sets of information made by a broad user sample,which will provide more accurate statistical reports and readings. Furthermore, this research is focused on how users can be clustered based on individual and group behaviour, so that a personalized support through feedback is provided, and the personal learning process is improved as well as the group interaction. We take inputs from every person and from the group they belong to, cluster the contributions, find behavioural patterns and provide personalized feedback to the individual and the group, based on personal and group findings. And we do all this in the context of educational games integrated in learning communities and learning management systems. To carry out this research we design a set of research questions along the 10-year published work presented in this thesis. We ask if the users can be clustered together based on the inputs provided by them and their groups; if and how these data are useful to improve the learner performance and the group interaction; if and how feedback becomes a useful tool for such pedagogical goal; if and how eGames become a powerful context to deploy the pedagogical methodology and the various research methods and activities that make use of that feedback to encourage learning and interaction; if and how a game design and a learning design must be defined and implemented to achieve these objectives, and to facilitate the productive authoring and integration of eGames in pedagogical contexts and frameworks. We conclude that educational games are a resourceful tool to provide a user experience towards a better personalized learning performance and an enhance group interaction along the way. To do so, eGames, while integrated in an educational context, must follow a specific set of user and technical requirements, so that the playful context supports the pedagogical model underneath. We also conclude that, while playing, users can be clustered based on their personal behaviour and interaction with others, thanks to the pattern identification. Based on this information, a set of recommendations are provided Digital Anthropology and educational eGames 6 /216 to the user and the group in the form of personalized feedback, timely managed for an optimum impact on learning performance and group interaction level. In this research, Digital Anthropology is introduced as a concept at a late stage to provide a backbone across various academic fields including: Social Science, Cognitive Science, Behavioural Science, Educational games and, of course, Technology-enhance learning. Although just recently described as an evolution of traditional anthropology, this approach to digital behaviour and social structure facilitates the understanding amongst fields and a comprehensive view towards a combined approach. This research takes forward the already existing work and published research onusers and eGames for learning, and turns the focus onto the next step — the clustering of users based on their behaviour and offering proper, personalized feedback to the user based on that clustering, rather than just on isolated inputs from every user. Indeed, this pattern recognition in the described context of eGames in educational contexts, and towards the presented aim of personalized counselling to the user and the group through feedback, is something that has not been accomplished before.

Facilitating learning in a real time strategy computer game

The aim of this project was to implement a just-in-time hints help system into a real time strategy (RTS) computer game that would deliver information to the user at the time that it would be of the most benefit. The goal of this help system is to improve the user’s learning in terms of their rate of learning, retention and avoidance of stagnation. The first stage of this project was implementing a computer game to incorporate four different types of skill that the user must acquire, namely motor, perceptual, declarative knowledge and strategic. Subsequently, the just-in-time hints help system was incorporated into the game to assess the user’s knowledge and deliver hints accordingly. The final stage of the project was to test the effectiveness of this help system by conducting two phases of testing. The goal of this testing was to demonstrate an increase in the user’s assessment of the helpfulness of the system from phase one to phase two. The results of this testing showed that there was no significant difference in the user’s responses in the two phases. However, when the results were analysed with respect to several categories of hints that were identified, it became apparent that patterns in the data were beginning to emerge. The conclusions of the project were that further testing with a larger sample size would be required to provide more reliable results and that factors such as the user’s skill level and different types of goals should be taken into account.

Novel Biobjective Clustering (BiGC) Based on Cooperative Game Theory

We propose a new approach to clustering. Our idea is to map cluster formation to coalition formation in cooperative games, and to use the Shapley value of the patterns to identify clusters and cluster representatives. We show that the underlying game is convex and this leads to an efficient biobjective clustering algorithm that we call BiGC. The algorithm yields high-quality clustering with respect to average point-to-center distance (potential) as well as average intracluster point-to-point distance (scatter). We demonstrate the superiority of BiGC over state-of-the-art clustering algorithms (including the center based and the multiobjective techniques) through a detailed experimentation using standard cluster validity criteria on several benchmark data sets. We also show that BiGC satisfies key clustering properties such as order independence, scale invariance, and richness.

Violent Video Game Playing, Moral Reasoning, and Attitudes Towards Violence in Adolescents: Is There a Connection?

In this study of 109 adolescents from the eighth grade of seven public elementary schools in Ontario, the relationship among adolescents’ violent video game playing patterns, habits and attitudes, their levels of moral reasoning, and their attitudes towards violence in real life was investigated. In addition, gender differences were addressed. The mixed-methodology was employed combining qualitative and quantitative data. The research results confirmed that playing video games in general is a very popular activity among those adolescents. Significant negative relationship was found between adolescents’ amount of time playing violent video games during the day and their scores on The Sociomoral Reflection Measure. Significant difference was also found between adolescents who play violent video games and those who do not play violent video games on their scores on The Attitudes Towards Violence Scale. Boys and girls significantly differed in the amount of playing video games during the day, the reasons for playing video games, their favourite video game choices, and their favourite video game character choices. Boys and girls also significantly differed on their choices of personality traits of selected video game characters, the identification with video game characters, and their mood experiences while playing video games. The findings are put into the educational context and the context of normal development, and suggestions are given for parents, for educators, and for future violent video game research.

A Markov random field model for combining optimum-path forest classifiers using decision graphs and game strategy approach

The research on multiple classifiers systems includes the creation of an ensemble of classifiers and the proper combination of the decisions. In order to combine the decisions given by classifiers, methods related to fixed rules and decision templates are often used. Therefore, the influence and relationship between classifier decisions are often not considered in the combination schemes. In this paper we propose a framework to combine classifiers using a decision graph under a random field model and a game strategy approach to obtain the final decision. The results of combining Optimum-Path Forest (OPF) classifiers using the proposed model are reported, obtaining good performance in experiments using simulated and real data sets. The results encourage the combination of OPF ensembles and the framework to design multiple classifier systems. © 2011 Springer-Verlag.

Effects of consequenses on patterns of interlocked contingencies; A replication of a metacontingency experiment

The concept of metacontingency was taught to undergraduate students of Psychology by using a "game" simulation proposed originally by Vichi, Andery and Glenn (2009). Twenty-five students, distributed into three groups were exposed to six experimental sessions in which they had to make bets and divide the amounts gained. The three groups competed against each other for photocopies quotas. Two contingencies shifted over the sessions. Under Contingency B, the group would win points only if in the previous round each member had received the same amount of points and under Contingency A, winning was contingent on an unequal distribution of the points. We observed that proportional divisions predominated independent of the contingency in course. The manipulation of cultural consequences (winning or losing points) produced consistent modifications in two response categories: 1) choices of the value bet in each round, and 2) divisions of the points among group members. Controlling relations between cultural consequences and the behavior of dividing were statistically significant in one of the groups, whereas in the other two groups controlling relations were observed only in Contingency B. A review of the reinforcement criteria used in the original experiment is suggested.

Lucky numbers: Choice strategies in the Pennsylvania Daily Number game

Examined the amount of money bet during a week of Pennsylvania's Daily Number game. In this game, players receive a predetermined payoff for picking the 3-digit number (000 to 999) drawn on that day. The betting distribution was distinctly nonuniform. Several betting patterns were identified, such as picking triples and avoiding double 9s. In addition, 121 adults and 215 students were asked to rate selected numbers for randomness, luckiness, and perceived history of winning; to categorize numbers; and to free associate to numbers. It is proposed that people seem to choose highly patterned, available, and/or "lucky" numbers. People apparently do not bet numbers that reflect the random process of the game (do not utilize a representativeness heuristic).

Subnational Patterns of Democracy in Austria, Germany and Switzerland

This article investigates the main political institutions in the sub-national democracies of Austria, Germany and Switzerland. It applies Lijphart’s approach to these German-speaking countries in Western Europe and expands it – following recent advances – by direct democracy. The main finding of the sub-national analysis is that, similar to Lijphart, two dimensions of democracy can be distinguished. While the first can be considered as the ‘consensual dimension’ of democracy, the second represents the ‘rules of the game’. Moreover, and in contrast to analyses at the national level, direct democracy does not constitute a dimension on its own, but forms an important element of consensus decision-making in the sub-national units at hand. Finally, based on cluster analysis three homogenous national clusters were found, but also one cluster with sub-national democracies from Germany and Austria that are more similar to one another than to other Länder within their respective federal states.

Patterns of motor abilities and technical skills as predictors of success for young elite football players

Sport-motor tests play an important role in football talent selections. However, single tests represent only parts of the complex game performance. The best game performance therefore does not necessarily need to go hand in hand with the best results in all tests of a test battery. Considering the complexity of the game performance appropriately, a holistic perspective together with a person-oriented approach are applied. Thereby, systems consisting of several variables are identified and analysed in a longitudinal study. Following this idea, six sport-motor tests were aggregated into a subsystem. 106 young male elite football players were tested three times (2011, 2012, 2013; Mage, t2011=12.26, SD=0.29). One year later (2014) their performance level was enquired. Data were analysed using the LICUR method, a cluster analytical method. Four patterns were identified, which remained stable at all measuring points. The players frequently show intraindividual and structurally similar patterns over time. At the third measuring point, a pattern occurred out of which the players are significantly more likely to advance to the highest performance level one year later. This pattern appears consistently above average, but does not always show best test performances. The significantly frequent development along structurally stable patterns suggests a predictive validity of the subsystem sport-motor tests between the ages of 12 to 15. Above average, but not necessarily outstanding performances both in the motor abilities as well as in the football specific tests appears to be particularly promising. This finding emphasizes the need of a holistic perspective in the talent selection.