El calamar gigante en el mar peruano. Crucero B/P Hakurei Maru Nº 8. Primavera 2010 y Verano 2011

El crucero se desarrolló en dos etapas, la primera en primavera 2010, de 4° a 11°25’S y la segunda en verano 2011, de 10°10’ a 17°23’S, entre 50 a 200 mn de la costa. La captura del recurso en la primera etapa fue 35.079,6 kg (25.669,1 kg de producción) y en la segunda 165.955,7 kg (123.229,5 kg de producción). La captura por unidad de esfuerzo por día de trabajo fluctuó de 2,9 a 4.292,6 kg/hora; 0,68 a 948,4 kg/línea; 0,07 a 99,8 kg/ línea*hora y 0,0017 a 2,4957 kg/pot*hora. La longitud del manto varió de 17 a 119 cm. Se registró hembras en estadio desovante III (51,5%), madurante II (21,6%); y machos en estadio evacuación III (85,1%) y virginales I (9,7%). Los grupos tróficos más importantes fueron: cefalópodos (% IRI= 66,4), crustáceos (% IRI= 23,7), peces (% IRI= 9,9). Las hembras presentaron: L∞ =111,233 cm LM, K=0,016, t0= 235 y los machos L∞ =99,718 cm LM, K=0,167 y t0=228,4; esta especie tiene una longevidad próxima o poco mayor a un año.

Variabilidad espacial de la pesquería de Dosidicus gigas (d’Orbigny, 1835) calamar gigante del 2004 al 2012

Se efectuó un análisis de la distribución espacial de operaciones de pesca de la flota calamarera industrial dentro y fuera de la zona económica exclusiva peruana (ZEE) con relación a la temperatura superficial de mar (TSM) y concentración de clorofila-a (Cl-a) para el periodo 2004-2012. La data de operaciones de pesca se dividió en tres periodos en función a distancia a la costa considerando regulaciones de pesca, de enero 2004 a octubre 2010, de noviembre 2010 a diciembre 2011 y 2012. Durante el primer periodo, se identificaron dos patrones mensuales de distribución espacial, de enero a julio fue a lo largo del litoral desde Paita (5°S) hasta San Juan de Marcona (15°22’S) y de agosto a diciembre entre Chimbote y Paita. En el segundo periodo, las operaciones de pesca formaron pequeñas concentraciones y puntos de pesca dispersas debido a la restricción de pesca dentro de las 80 millas náuticas desde noviembre del 2010. Durante el 2012 la flota se localizó fuera de la ZEE. Las mayores concentraciones de la flota se ubicaron entre 30 a 90 millas náuticas de la costa. Mayores concentraciones de pesca se localizaron en Paita-Chimbote (5°-9°S) y Callao- San Juan de Marcona (12°03’-15°22’S). Las faenas de pesca se realizaron en un rango amplio de TSM entre 14,1 y 26,8 °C, con mayor incidencia en temperaturas entre 18,4 a 22 °C, con tendencia a localizarse en áreas de mayor temperatura durante los últimos años. Respecto a la clorofila-a, la flota faenó entre concentraciones de clorofila-a de 0 a 9,5 mg/m3 dentro de la ZEE, y entre 0,2 y 0,5 mg/m3 fuera de la ZEE. Se observó un patrón de distribución de flota, asociado a las anomalías de temperatura superficial de mar del área El Niño 1+2, a la distribución latitudinal y una variabilidad cíclica mensual de la TSM.

PERFORATING POTENTIAL OF LOLIGINID SPERMATOPHORES

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

A model to explain spermatophore implantation in cephalopods (Mollusca: Cephalopoda) and a discussion on its evolutionary origins and significance

Male coleoid cephalopods produce spermatophores that can attach autonomously on the female's body during a complex process of evagination called the spermatophoric reaction, during which the ejaculatory apparatus and spiral filament of the spermatophore are everted and exposed to the external milieu. In some deepwater cephalopods, the reaction leads to the intradermal implantation of the spermatophore, a hitherto enigmatic phenomenon. The present study builds upon several lines of evidence to propose that spermatophore implantation is probably achieved through the combination of (1) an evaginating-tube mechanism performed by the everting ejaculatory apparatus and (2) the anchorage provided by the spiral filament's stellate particles. The proposed theoretical model assumes that, as it is exposed to the external milieu, each whorl of the spiral filament anchors to the surrounding tissue by means of its sharp stellate particles. As the ejaculatory apparatus tip continues evaginating, it grows in diameter and stretches lengthwise, enlarging the diameter of the whorl and propelling it, consequently tearing and pushing the anchored tissue outward and backward, and opening space for the next whorl to attach. After the ejaculatory apparatus has been everted and has perforated tissue, the cement body is extruded, possibly aiding in final attachment, and the sperm mass comes to lie inside the female tissue, encompassed by the everted ejaculatory apparatus tube. It is proposed that this unique, efficient spermatophore attachment mechanism possibly evolved in intimate relationship with the adoption of an active mode of life by coleoids. The possible roles of predation pressure and sperm competition in the evolution of this mechanism are also discussed. (c) 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 105, 711726.

Biomasa y distribución del calamar gigante (Dosidicus gigas) en el mar peruano aplicando el método hidroacústico: 1999 - verano 2015.

La biomasa y distribución espacial del calamar gigante o pota (Dosidicus gigas) estimada mediante el método hidroacústico fue variable entre 1999 y 2015. La biomasa promedio en las estaciones de verano fluctuó entre 500.000 y 800.000 toneladas (t) a excepción del 2004 y 2005 cuando se estimaron las mayores abundancias con 1,7 millones de t y 1,6 millones de t, respectivamente. Las menores abundancias en verano, correspondieron a los años 2000, 2013 y 2014 con alrededor de 100.000 t. Durante la primavera, las mayores abundancias se registraron en el 2001 (863.000 t) y 2002 (879.000 t). En invierno, las biomasas fluctuaron entre 4.000 t (2010) y 560.000 t (2001). La variabilidad de la distribución espacial de la pota estuvo asociada a parámetros oceanográficos, influenciada principalmente por el frente oceánico y las masas de Aguas Subtropicales Superficiales (ASS); así como a isotermas de 18 °C a 25 °C e isohalinas de 34,8 ups a 35,5 ups.

Dynamical speckles patterns of action potential transmission effects in squid giant axon membrane.

Undoubtedly the most important result of the investigations in physiology and biophysics was the discovery of the electrochemical mechanism of propagation of the action potential in nerves that was made by Hodgkin and Huxley during the first half of the past century. Since some decades ago diverse experiments about the electro optical properties of the axon membrane there was published using the most diverse optical experimental ‘procedures POT 6-10’. In this paper some results of a dynamical speckle technique applied for obtaining microscopic images of a section of a squid giant axon membrane during the activation by electrical impulses and his digital process are presented.

Nerve growth factor acutely reduces chemical transmission by means of postsynaptic TrkA-like receptors in squid giant synapse

Tyrosine phosphorylation has been shown to be an important modulator of synaptic transmission in both vertebrates and invertebrates. Such findings hint toward the existence of extracellular ligands capable of activating this widely represented signaling mechanism at or close to the synapse. Examples of such ligands are the peptide growth factors which, on binding, activate receptor tyrosine kinases. To gain insight into the physiological consequences of receptor tyrosine kinase activation in squid giant synapse, a series of growth factors was tested in this preparation. Electrophysiological, pharmacological, and biochemical analysis demonstrated that nerve growth factor (NGF) triggers an acute and specific reduction of the postsynaptic potential amplitude, without affecting the presynaptic spike generation or presynaptic calcium current. The NGF target is localized at a postsynaptic site and involves a new TrkA-like receptor. The squid receptor crossreacts with antibodies generated against mammalian TrkA, is tyrosine phosphorylated in response to NGF stimulation, and is blocked by specific pharmacological inhibitors. The modulation described emphasizes the important role of growth factors on invertebrate synaptic transmission.

Block of transmitter release by botulinum C1 action on syntaxin at the squid giant synapse

Electrophysiological, morphological, and biochemical approaches were combined to study the effect of the presynaptic injection of the light chain of botulinum toxin C1 into the squid giant synapse. Presynaptic injection was accompanied by synaptic block that occurred progressively as the toxin filled the presynaptic terminal. Neither the presynaptic action potential nor the Ca2+ currents in the presynaptic terminal were affected by the toxin. Biochemical analysis of syntaxin moiety in squid indicates that the light chain of botulinum toxin C1 lyses syntaxin in vitro, suggesting that this was the mechanism responsible for synaptic block. Ultrastructure of the injected synapses demonstrates an enormous increase in the number of presynaptic vesicles, suggesting that the release rather than the docking of vesicles is affected by biochemical lysing of the syntaxin molecule.

Spatial localization of calcium channels in giant fiber lobe neurons of the squid (Loligo opalescens).

Whole-cell voltage clamp was used to investigate the properties and spatial distribution of fast-deactivating (FD) Ca channels in squid giant fiber lobe (GFL) neurons. Squid FD Ca channels are reversibly blocked by the spider toxin omega-Agatoxin IVA with an IC50 of 240-420 nM with no effect on the kinetics of Ca channel gating. Channels with very similar properties are expressed in both somatic and axonal domains of cultured GFL neurons, but FD Ca channel conductance density is higher in axonal bulbs than in cell bodies at all times in culture. Channels presumably synthesized during culture are preferentially expressed in the growing bulbs, but bulbar Ca conductance density remains constant while Na conductance density increases, suggesting that processes determining the densities of Ca and Na channels in this extrasomatic domain are largely independent. These observations suggest that growing axonal bulbs in cultured GFL neurons are not composed entirely of "axonal" membranes because FD Ca channels are absent from the giant axon in situ but, rather, suggest a potential role for FD Ca channels in mediating neurotransmitter release at the motor terminals of the giant axon.

Transport of cytoskeletal elements in the squid giant axon.

In order to explore how cytoskeletal proteins are moved by axonal transport, we injected fluorescent microtubules and actin filaments as well as exogenous particulates into squid giant axons and observed their movements by confocal microscopy. The squid giant axon is large enough to allow even cytoskeletal assemblies to be injected without damaging the axon or its transport mechanisms. Negatively charged, 10- to 500-nm beads and large dextrans moved down the axon, whereas small (70 kDa) dextrans diffused in all directions and 1000-nm beads did not move. Only particles with negative charge were transported. Microtubules and actin filaments, which have net negative charges, made saltatory movements down the axon, resulting in a net rate approximating that previously shown for slow transport of cytoskeletal elements. The present observations suggest that particle size and charge determine which materials are transported down the axon.

Role of the C2A domain of synaptotagmin in transmitter release as determined by specific antibody injection into the squid giant synapse preterminal.

Squid synaptotagmin (Syt) cDNA, including its open reading frame, was cloned and polyclonal antibodies were obtained in rabbits immunized with glutathione S-transferase (GST)-Syt-C2A. Binding assays indicated that the antibody, anti-Syt-C2A, recognized squid Syt and inhibited the Ca(2+)-dependent phospholipid binding to the C2A domain. This antibody, when injected into the preterminal at the squid giant synapse, blocked transmitter release in a manner similar to that previously reported for the presynaptic injection of members of the inositol high-polyphosphate series. The block was not accompanied by any change in the presynaptic action potential or the amplitude or voltage dependence of the presynaptic Ca2+ current. The postsynaptic potential was rather insensitive to repetitive presynaptic stimulation, indicating a direct effect of the antibody on the transmitter release system. Following block of transmitter release, confocal microscopical analysis of the preterminal junction injected with rhodamine-conjugated anti-Syt-C2A demonstrated fluorescent spots at the inner surface of the presynaptic plasmalemma next to the active zones. Structural analysis of the same preparations demonstrated an accumulation of synaptic vesicles corresponding in size and distribution to the fluorescent spots demonstrated confocally. Together with the finding that such antibody prevents Ca2+ binding to a specific receptor in the C2A domain, these results indicate that Ca2+ triggers transmitter release by activating the C2A domain of Syt. We conclude that the C2A domain is directly related to the fusion of synaptic vesicles that results in transmitter release.

Role of the C2B domain of synaptotagmin in vesicular release and recycling as determined by specific antibody injection into the squid giant synapse preterminal.

Synaptotagmin (Syt) is an inositol high-polyphosphate series [IHPS inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate (IP4), inositol 1,3,4,5,6-pentakisphosphate, and inositol 1,2,3,4,5,6-hexakisphosphate] binding synaptic vesicle protein. A polyclonal antibody against the C2B domain (anti-Syt-C2B), an IHPS binding site, was produced. The specificity of this antibody to the C2B domain was determined by comparing its ability to inhibit IP4 binding to the C2B domain with that to inhibit the Ca2+/phospholipid binding to the C2A domain. Injection of the anti-Syt-C2B IgG into the squid giant presynapse did not block synaptic release. Coinjection of IP4 and anti-Syt-C2B IgG failed to block transmitter release, while IP4 itself was a powerful synpatic release blocker. Repetitive stimulation to presynaptic fiber injected with anti-Syt-C2B IgG demonstrated a rapid decline of the postsynaptic response amplitude probably due to its block of synaptic vesicle recycling. Electron microscopy of the anti-Syt-C2B-injected presynapse showed a 90% reduction of the numbers of synaptic vesicles. These results, taken together, indicate that the Syt molecule is central, in synaptic vesicle fusion by Ca2+ and its regulation by IHPS, as well as in the recycling of synaptic vesicles.

Influence of fixed electric charges on potential profile across the squid axon membrane

The potential profile for a model of squid axon membrane has been determined for two physiological states: resting and action states. The non-linear Poisson-Boltzmann equation has been solved by considering the volumetric charge densities due to charges dissolved in an electrolytic solution and fixed on both glycocalyx and cytoplasmatic proteins. Results showing the features of the potential profile along the outer electrolytic region are similar for both resting and action states. However, the potential fall along glycocalyx at action state is lower than at resting. A small variation in the Na+ concentration drastically affects the surface membrane potentials and vice versa. We conclude that effects on the potential profile due to surface lipidic bilayer charge and contiguous electric double layers are more relevant than those provoked by fixed charges distributed along the cell cytoplasm. (c) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.