Epidemiology of fluorosis and dental caries according to different types of water supplies

O objetivo do presente artigo é investigar a relação fluorose/cáries em escolas, de acordo com o nível de fluoreto no abastecimento público de água. A amostra consistiu em 360 alunos de doze anos de idade, de ambos os sexos, que frequentam as escolas próximas da região em que nasceram. As escolas foram classificadas em três grupos de acordo com a presença de fluoreto no abastecimento de água: 1) fluoretação na Estação de Tratamento de Água (ETA); 2) fluoretação direta em poços; e 3) áreas não fluoretadas (ANF). Os testes deχe de Goodman (significância = 5%) foram utilizados para avaliar a associação entre a origem da água e o grau de fluorose. Os resultados mais predominantes foram presença de cáries em toda a amostra (P<0,05); ausência de fluorose em ambos gêneros, para indivíduos brancos e aqueles vivendo em áreas abastecidas com água fluoretada diretamente de poços e não fluoretadas (P<0,05). Não houve diferença no grau de severidade da fluorose entre as fontes de abastecimento de água (P>0,05). As cáries ainda são uma importante questão nessa população, apesar do estabelecimento de medida preventiva. A observação da fluorose em alunos vivendo em áreas não fluoretadas confirma a presença de outras fontes de fluorose.

Dental fluorosis and its influence on children’s life

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

A comparative analysis of caries and fluorosis among cities with and without public water supply fluoridation in São Paulo State, Brazil

Purpose: This population-based, cross-sectional study aimed to record the DMFT index for 12 year-old children with dental caries and fluorosis levels in cities with and without public water supply fluoridation. Methods: From the 101 municipalities belonging to the Health Regional Department XV (DRSXV-SJRP) of the São Paulo state in the Southeast region of Brazil, 85 cities were selected after exclusion of those with incomplete data and less than ten years of fluoridation treatment in 2004. The criteria adopted for the assessment of dental caries and fluorosis levels were based on the guidelines published in the WHO Manual 4th edition. The data were analyzed using Fisher’s exact tests at a significance level of 5%. Results: The prevalence of caries in 12 year-old children had no significant association with fluoridated water, and was considered “moderate” and “high” in cities without fluoridation and “low” and “moderate” in cities with fluoridation. A significant association was found between water fluoridation and fluorosis (P=0.001), but not between water fluoridation and the DMFT index (P=0.119). Conclusion: The prevalence of fluorosis was related to water fluoridation in this study. However, fluorosis was also observed in non-fluoridated cities, which may result from fluoride intake through other sources.

Efeito do dentifrício fluoretado na incidência de cárie na dentição decídua e fluorose na dentição permanente: revisões sistemáticas e metanálises

Apesar do potencial anticárie do dentifrício fluoretado na dentição permanente estar bem estabelecido, existe uma lacuna no conhecimento em relação ao seu efeito na dentição decídua; não existe consenso quanto à concentração ideal de fluoreto no dentifrício capaz de maximizar o benefício anticárie na dentição decídua e simultaneamente minimizar o risco de desenvolver fluorose clinicamente importante na dentição permanente. O artigo 1 desta tese avaliou o efeito dos dentifrícios de concentração baixa (menos de 600 ppm) e padrão (1000 a 1500 ppm) de fluoreto comparados com placebo ou nenhuma intervenção e o artigo 2 comparou diretamente o efeito do dentifrício de concentração baixa de fluoreto com o de concentração padrão. Foi realizada uma revisão sistemática de ensaios clínicos randomizados ou quasi-randomizados. Dois examinadores leram, de forma independente, 1932 resumos ou citações e 159 estudos na íntegra. As discordâncias foram resolvidas por um terceiro examinador. Oito estudos foram incluídos no artigo 1 e cinco no artigo 2. Para avaliar o efeito dos dentifrícios fluoretados sobre o número de dentes e superfícies dentárias cariadas, perdidas por cárie e obturadas, e sobre o número de crianças com cárie e fluorose, foram estimados frações prevenidas (FP) e riscos relativos (RR) combinados, respectivamente. Quando os dentifrícios de concentração padrão de fluoreto foram comparados com placebo ou nenhuma intervenção, houve reduções significativas de cárie no nível de superfície (FP= 31%; IC 95% 18 43), dente (FP= 16%; IC 95% 7 24) e indivíduo (RR= 0,86; IC 95% 0,81 0,93). Quando os dentifrícios de concentração baixa de fluoreto foram comparados com nenhuma intervenção, houve redução significativa de cárie apenas no nível de superfície (FP= 40%; IC 95% 5 75) (artigo 1). Os dentifrícios de concentração baixa de fluoreto, comparados diretamente com os de concentração padrão, aumentaram significativamente o risco de cárie na dentição decídua (RR= 1,13; IC 95% 1,07 1,20) e não reduziram significativamente o risco de fluorose clinicamente importante nos dentes permanentes anteriores superiores (RR= 0,32; IC 95% 0,03 2,97). Houve uma redução significativa de cárie no nível de dente quando o dentifrício com concentração padrão de fluoreto foi comparado com o de baixa concentração (FP=14%; IC 95% 6 21). Porém, não houve diferença no nível de superfície, apesar de ter havido uma tendência favorecendo os dentifrícios com concentração padrão de fluoreto e pH neutro (FP= 13%; IC 95% -4 30) e os de concentração baixa de fluoreto e pH ácido (FP= -5%; IC 95% -22 11) (artigo 2). Os dentifrícios de concentração padrão de fluoreto foram mais efetivos na redução de cárie na dentição decídua de pré-escolares do que os de concentração baixa, placebo ou nenhuma intervenção. Os dentifrícios de concentração padrão de fluoreto, em comparação com os de concentração baixa, não aumentaram significativamente o risco de fluorose clinicamente importante nos dentes permanentes anteriores superiores. São necessários mais estudos para confirmar se a redução do pH dos dentifrícios de concentração baixa de fluoreto pode ser considerada uma alternativa para aumentar o efeito anticárie e reduzir o risco de fluorose clinicamente importante.

Efeito dose-resposta de uma formulação de dentifrício com concentração reduzida de fluoreto - estudo in vitro.

The utilization of dentifrices with low fluorine concentration, for children under 6 years of age, has been suggested to reduce the risks of dental fluorosis. However, in order to have anticariogenic potential, the dentifrice should form loosely-bound fluorine (CaF2) on dental enamel. Considering that the formation of CaF2 is a function inversely related to pH, dentifrices with pH 5.5, with 275, 550 and 1,100 ppm F (NaF/silica) were developed in order to assess dose-response effects. A comparison between those dentifrices, a placebo product and the Crest toothpaste (positive control - standard) was carried out. Furthermore, the bioavailability of dentifrices, in terms of formation of total fluorine (TF), CaF2, and fluorapatite (FA) on human dental enamel, was evaluated. An ion-specific electrode was utilized for the determination of the dosage of fluorine. The results revealed that the dentifrice with 550 ppm F was more effective than both the placebo and the dentifrice with 275 ppm, presenting no difference in relation to the positive control (p > 0.05). A dose-effect correlation was observed as to the CaF2 formed. In conclusion, the modified formulation with 550 ppm F can be considered as effective as the standard dentifrice with 1,100 ppm, and its utilization would be safer with regard to dental fluorosis.

Analysis of fluoride concentration in mother's milk substitutes

The aim of the present study was to determine the fluoride concentration in some brands of mother's milk substitutes and evaluate the possibility of developing dental fluorosis by consuming these products. The products, all powdered, were divided into 3 groups: infant formulae (group I, n = 7), milk-based (group M, n = 8) and soy-based (group 8, n = 3). Samples from 3 cans of different batches of each brand were reconstituted in deionized water and analyzed using the specific electrode method, after hexamethyldisiloxane (HMDS) facilitated diffusion. The fluoride content (mg F/L) of the products ranged from 0.044 to 0.326 (I), 0.014 to 0.045 (M) and 0.253 to 0.702 (S). There was significant difference in the fluoride content of cans from distinct batches (p < 0.05) in most of the brands. The reconstitution of all products in water with optimal fluoride concentration for consumption during the mineralization phase of the primary teeth could result in daily fluoride intake above 0.07 mg F/kg body weight/day. Therefore, the consumption of these products, especially when reconstituted with optimally fluoridated water, could increase the risk of developing dental fluorosis.

Fluoride intake from regular and low fluoride dentifrices by 2-3-year-old children: Influence of the dentifrice flavor

This study evaluated the fluoride intake from dentifrices with different fluoride concentrations ([F]) by children aged 24-36 months, as well as the influence of the dentifrice flavor in the amount of fluoride ingested during toothbrushing. Thirty-three children were randomly divided into 3 groups, according to the [F] in the dentifrices: G-A (523 μgF/g), G-B (1,062 μgF/g) and G-C (1,373 μgF/g). Dentifrices A and B are marketed for children, while dentifrice C is a regular product. The amount of F ingested was indirectly obtained, subtracting the amount expelled and the amount left on the toothbrush from the amount initially loaded onto the brush. The results were analyzed by ANOVA, Tukey's test and linear regression analysis (p < 0.05). Children ingested around 60% of the dentifrice loaded onto the brush, but no significant differences were seen among the groups (p > 0.05). Mean daily fluoride intake from dentifrice for G-A, G-B and G-C was 0.022 a, 0.032 a and 0.061 b mg F/kg body weight, respectively (p < 0.01). There was a strong positive correlation (r = 0.86, p < 0.0001) between the amount of dentifrice used and the amount of fluoride ingested during toothbrushing. The results indicate the need for instructing children's parents and care givers to use a small amount of dentifrice (< 0.3 g) to avoid excessive ingestion of fluoride. The use of low-[F] dentifrices by children younger than 6 years also seems to be a good alternative to minimize fluoride intake. Dentifrice flavor did not influence the percentage of fluoride intake.

Water fluoridation in 40 Brazilian cities: 7 year analysis.

Fluoride levels in the public water supplies of 40 Brazilian cities were analyzed and classified on the basis of risk/benefit balance. Samples were collected monthly over a seven-year period from three sites for each water supply source. The samples were analyzed in duplicate in the laboratory of the Center for Research in Public Health - UNESP using an ion analyzer coupled to a fluoride-specific electrode. A total of 19,533 samples were analyzed, of which 18,847 were artificially fluoridated and 686 were not artificially fluoridated. In samples from cities performing water fluoridation, 51.57% (n=9,720) had fluoride levels in the range of 0.55 to 0.84 mg F/L; 30.53% (n=5,754) were below 0.55 mg F/L and 17.90% (n=3,373) were above 0.84 mg F/L (maximum concentration=6.96 mg F/L). Most of the cities performing fluoridation that had a majority of samples with fluoride levels above the recommended parameter had deep wells and more than one source of water supply. There was some variability in the fluoride levels of samples from the same site and between collection sites in the same city. The majority of samples from cities performing fluoridation had fluoride levels within the range that provides the best combination of risks and benefits, minimizing the risk of dental fluorosis while preventing dental caries. The conduction of studies about water distribution systems is suggested in cities with high natural fluoride concentrations in order to optimize the use of natural fluoride for fluoridation costs and avoid the risk of dental fluorosis.

Seven years of external control of fluoride levels in the public water supply in Bauru, São Paulo, Brazil

luoridation of the public water supplies is recognized as among the top ten public health achievements of the twentieth century. However, the positive aspects of this measure depend on the maintenance of fluoride concentrations within adequate levels. Objective: To report the results of seven years of external control of the fluoride (F) concentrations in the public water supply in Bauru, SP, Brazil in an attempt to verify, on the basis of risk/ benefit balance, whether the levels are appropriate. Material and Methods: From March 2004 to February 2011, 60 samples were collected every month from the 19 supply sectors of the city, totaling 4,641 samples. F concentrations in water samples were determined in duplicate, using an ion-speciflc electrode (Orion 9609) coupled to a potentiometer after buffering with TISAB II. After the analysis, the samples were classified according to the best risk-benefit adjustment. Results: Means (±standard deviation) of F concentrations ranged between 0.73±0.06 and 0.81±0.10 mg/L for the different sectors during the seven years. The individual values ranged between 0.03 and 2.63 mg/L. The percentages of the samples considered low risk for dental fluorosis development and of maximum benefit for dental caries prevention (0.55-0.84 mg F/L) in the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh years of the study were 82.0, 58.5, 37.4, 61.0, 89.9, 77.3, and 72.4%, respectively, and 69.0% for the entire period. Conclusions: Fluctuations of F levels were found in the public water supply in Bauru during the seven years of evaluation. These results suggest that external monitoring of water fluoridation by an independent assessor should be implemented in cities where there is adjusted fluoridation. This measure should be continued in order to verify that fluoride levels are suitable and, if not, to provide support for the appropriate adjustments.

Fluorose dentária e concentração de flúor nas unhas de crianças residentes em diferentes áreas fluoretadas

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Prevalência e autopercepção da fluorose dentária em crianças de 12 anos de idade do município de Birigüi-SP

Pós-graduação em Odontologia Preventiva e Social - FOA

Avaliação in vitro da eficácia de dentifrícios de baixa concentração de fluoreto suplementados com hexametafosfato sobre o processo de desmineralização do esmalte

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Concentração de flúor nas refeições e saúde bucal de crianças matriculadas em creches públicas

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Avaliação do risco de desenvolvimento de fluorose dentária através da ingestão total de flúor, em crianças de 18 a 36 meses, no município de Penedo - AL

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Evidências científicas da associação entre fórmula infantil, fluorose e cárie dentária

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)