Fire safety engineering: Confronto tra approccio prescrittivo e prestazionale applicato ad una attivita alberghiera

La complessa materia della prevenzione incendi può essere approcciata secondo due strategie sostanzialmente differenti. Da una parte, l’approccio di tipo deterministico, imperante in Italia, si concretizza nell’emanazione di norme estremamente prescrittive e nel ricorso da parte del progettista a strumenti di calcolo molto semplici. Il pregio maggiore di tale approccio risiede senza dubbio alcuno nella sua estrema semplicità, nella garanzia di una certa omogeneità di applicazione e nella possibilità di erogare in tempi ragionevoli una formazione uniforme ed accettabile ai controllori. Mentre il limite più evidente consiste nella rigidità, talora eccessiva, delle prescrizioni normative e nelle procedure di calcolo da adottare. Dall’altra, un approccio di tipo ingegneristico (Fire Safety Engineering), seguito per lo più nei paesi anglosassoni, si basa sulla predizione della dinamica evolutiva dell’incendio tramite l’applicazione di idonei modelli di calcolo fisicamente basati (physically sound). Punto di forza di questa seconda strategia è la sua estrema flessibilità, che consente la simulazione d’incendi di complessità anche molto elevata. Per contro i limiti più evidenti di tale approccio risiedono nella problematica validazione sperimentale dei modelli in argomento, data la natura distruttiva delle prove che andrebbero condotte, nella spinta preparazione richiesta ai professionisti ed ancor più ai controllori, dato il proliferare negli anni di modelli anche molto diversi tra loro, ed, infine, nel caso di raffinati modelli di campo, in un onere computazionale non sempre sostenibile con i PC di comune diffusione. Allo stato attuale in Italia il ricorso alla Fire Safety Engineering è di fatto circoscritto alle applicazioni per le quali non esiste una specifica norma prescrittiva, su tutte la valutazione del rischio in attività a rischio di incidente rilevante e la Fire Investigation; talora essa è impiegata anche per la valutazione della sicurezza equivalente in occasione di richiesta di deroga a norme prescrittive.

Modellazione avanzata di un incendio in uno stabilimento industriale secondo i principi della fire safety engineering

Lo sviluppo di un incendio all’interno di depositi di liquidi infiammabili costituisce uno scenario particolarmente critico a causa della rilevanza delle conseguenze che ne possono scaturire. L’incendio causato dalla formazione di grandi pozze sviluppatesi a seguito di forature dei contenitori e il rapido coinvolgimento di tutto lo stoccaggio rappresentano uno scenario di incendio tipico di queste realtà. Si ha quindi la necessità di adottare provvedimenti atti a garantire specifici obiettivi di sicurezza tramite l’introduzione di misure antincendio. La prevenzione incendi, sino al 2007, era basata esclusivamente su norme di tipo prescrittivo, in base alle quali si definivano le misure di sicurezza secondo un criterio qualitativo. Successivamente l’ingegneria antincendio si è sempre più caratterizzata da approcci basati su analisi di tipo prestazionale, in grado di dimostrare il raggiungimento dell’obiettivo di sicurezza sulla base del comportamento reale d’incendio ottenuto mediante un’accurata simulazione del fuoco che ragionevolmente può prodursi nell'attività. La modellazione degli incendi è divenuta possibile grazie allo sviluppo di codici di fluidodinamica computazionale (CFD), in grado di descrivere accuratamente l’evoluzione delle fiamme. Il presente studio si inserisce proprio nell’ambito della modellazione CFD degli incendi, eseguita mediante il software Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS). L’obiettivo dell’elaborato è studiare l’azione dell’impianto di spegnimento a schiuma sullo sviluppo di un incendio di pozza in un deposito di liquidi infiammabili, in termini di riduzione della potenza termica rilasciata dal fuoco, al fine di determinare le temperature massime raggiunte, in corrispondenza delle quali valutare il comportamento di resistenza strutturale degli edifici. Il presente lavoro è articolato in 6 capitoli. Dopo il Capitolo 1, avente carattere introduttivo, vengono richiamati nel Capitolo 2 i principali concetti della chimica e fisica degli incendi. Nel Capitolo 3 vengono esaminate le normative intese ad unificare l’approccio ingegneristico alla sicurezza antincendio. Il Capitolo 4 fornisce una dettagliata descrizione del software di calcolo, FDS - Fire Dynamics Simulator, adoperato per la modellazione dell’incendio. Nel Capitolo 5 si procede alla progettazione prestazionale che conduce alla determinazione della curva naturale d'incendio in presenza degli impianti di spegnimento automatici. Infine nel Capitolo 6 si riportano le considerazioni conclusive.

Fire safety engineering and ship design using advanced fire and evacuation simulation

When designing a new passenger ship or modifying an existing design, how do we ensure that the proposed design and crew emergency procedures are safe from an evacuation resulting from fire or other incident? In the wake of major maritime disasters such as the Scandinavian Star, Herald of Free Enterprise, Estonia and in light of the growth in the number of high density, high-speed ferries and large capacity cruise ships, issues concerning the evacuation of passengers and crew at sea are receiving renewed interest. Fire and evacuation models with features such as the ability to realistically simulate the spread of heat and smoke and the human response to fire as well as the capability to model human performance in heeled orientations linked to a virtual reality environment that produces realistic visualisations of the modelled scenarios are now available and can be used to aid the engineer in assessing ship design and procedures. This paper describes the maritimeEXODUS ship evacuation and the SMARTFIRE fire simulation model and provides an example application demonstrating the use of the models in performing fire and evacuation analysis for a large passenger ship partially based on the requirements of MSC circular 1033

The use of mathematical modelling in fire safety engineering

Fire is a form of uncontrolled combustion which generates heat, smoke, toxic and irritant gases. All of these products are harmful to man and account for the heavy annual cost of 800 lives and £1,000,000,000 worth of property damage in Britain alone. The new discipline of Fire Safety Engineering has developed as a means of reducing these unacceptable losses. One of the main tools of Fire Safety Engineering is the mathematical model and over the past 15 years a number of mathematical models have emerged to cater for the needs of this discipline. Part of the difficulty faced by the Fire Safety Engineer is the selection of the most appropriate modelling tool to use for the job. To make an informed choice it is essential to have a good understanding of the various modelling approaches, their capabilities and limitations. In this paper some of the fundamental modelling tools used to predict fire and evacuation are investigated as are the issues associated with their use and recent developments in modelling technology.

Fire safety of steel wall systems using enhanced plasterboards

Fire safety design is important to eliminate the loss of property and lives during fire events. Gypsum plasterboard is widely used as a fire safety material in the building industry all over the world. It contains gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3) and most importantly free and chemically bound water in its crystal structure. The dehydration of the gypsum and the decomposition of Calcium Carbonate absorb heat, which gives the gypsum plasterboard fire resistant qualities. Currently plasterboard manufacturers use additives such as vermiculite to overcome shrinkage of gypsum core and glass fibre to bridge shrinkage cracks and enhance the integrity of board during calcination and after the loss of paper facings in fires. Past research has also attempted to reduce the thermal conductivity of plasterboards using fillers. However, no research has been undertaken to enhance the specific heat of plasterboard and the points of dehydration using chemical additives and fillers. Hence detailed experimental studies of powdered samples of plasterboard mixed with chemical additives and fillers in varying proportions were conducted. These tests showed the enhancement of specific heat of plasterboard. Numerical models were also developed to investigate the thermal performance of enhanced plasterboards under standard fire conditions. The results showed that the use of these enhanced plasterboards in steel wall systems can significantly improve their fire performance. This paper presents the details of this research and the results that can be used to enhance the fire safety of steel wall systems commonly used in buildings.

Fire safety of buildings based on realistic fire time-temperature curves

In recent times, fire has become a major disaster in buildings due to the increase in fire loads, as a result of modern furniture and light weight construction. This has caused problems for safe evacuation and rescue activities, and in some instances lead to the collapse of buildings (Lewis, 2008 and Nyman, 2002). Recent research has shown that the actual fire resistance of building elements exposed to building fires can be less than their specified fire resistance rating (Lennon and Moore, 2003, Jones, 2002, Nyman, 2002 and Abecassis-Empis et al. 2008). Conventionally the fire rating of building elements is determined using fire tests based on the standard fire time-temperature curve given in ISO 834. This ISO 834 curve was developed in the early 1900s, where wood was the basic fuel source. In reality, modern buildings make use of thermoplastic materials, synthetic foams and fabrics. These materials are high in calorific values and increase both the speed of fire growth and heat release rate, thus increasing the fire severity beyond that of the standard fire curve. Hence it suggests the need to use realistic fire time-temperature curves in tests. Real building fire temperature profiles depend on the fuel load representing the combustible building contents, ventilation openings and thermal properties of wall lining materials. Fuel load is selected based on a review and suitable realistic fire time-temperature curves were developed. Fire tests were then performed for plasterboard lined light gauge steel framed walls for the developed realistic fire curves. This paper presents the details of the development of suitable realistic building fire curves, and the fire tests using them. It describes the fire performance of tested walls in comparison to the standard fire tests and highlights the differences between them. This research has shown the need to use realistic fire exposures in assessing the fire resistance rating of building elements.

Fire safety of LPG in marine transportation /

"DOE/EV/06020-T4."

Economic aspects of fire safety in health care facilities : guidelines for cost-effective retrofits /

Nov. 1979.

SMARTFIRE: an intelligent CFD-based fire model

This paper describes a project aimed at making Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) based fire simulation accessible to members of the fire safety engineering community. Over the past few years, the practise of CFD based fire simulation has begun the transition from the confines of the research laboratory to the desk of the fire safety engineer. To a certain extent, this move has been driven by the demands of performance based building codes. However, while CFD modelling has many benefits over other forms of fire simulation, it requires a great deal of expertise on the user’s part to obtain reasonable simulation results. The project described in this paper, SMARTFIRE, aims to relieve some of this dependence on expertise so that users are less concerned with the details of CFD analysis and can concentrate on results. This aim is achieved by the use of an expert system component as part of the software suite which takes some of the expertise burden away from the user. SMARTFIRE also makes use of the latest developments in CFD technology in order to make the CFD analysis more efficient. This paper describes design considerations of the SMARTFIRE software, emphasising its open architecture, CFD engine and knowledge based systems.

SMARTFIRE: an intelligent CFD based fire model

This paper describes a project aimed at making Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)- based fire simulation accessible to members of the fire safety engineering community. Over the past few years, the practice of CFD-based fire simulation has begun the transition from the confines of the research laboratory to the desk of the fire safety engineer. To a certain extent, this move has been driven by the demands of performance based building codes. However, while CFD modeling has many benefits over other forms of fire simulation, it requires a great deal of expertise on the user’s part to obtain reasonable simulation results. The project described in this paper, SMARTFIRE, aims to relieve some of this dependence on expertise so that users are less concerned with the details of CFD analysis and can concentrate on results. This aim is achieved by the use of an expert system component as part of the software suite which takes some of the expertise burden away from the user. SMARTFIRE also makes use of the latest developments in CFD technology in order to make the CFD analysis more efficient. This paper describes design considerations of the SMARTFIRE software, emphasizing its open architecture, CFD engine and knowledge-based systems.

A case based reasoning system capturing fire modelling expertise

This paper describes the architecture of the case based reasoning (CBR) component of Smartfire, a fire field modelling tool for use by members of the Fire Safety Engineering community who are not expert in modelling techniques. The CBR system captures the qualitative reasoning of an experienced modeller in the assessment of room geometries so as to set up the important initial parameters of the problem. The system relies on two important reasoning principles obtained from the expert: 1) there is a natural hierarchical retrieval mechanism which may be employed; and 2) much of the reasoning on a qualitative level is linear in nature, although the computational solution of the problem is non-linear. The paper describes the qualitative representation of geometric room information on which the system is based, and the principles on which the CBR system operates.