Chikungunya and dengue fever among hospitalized febrile patients in northern Tanzania.

Consecutive febrile admissions were enrolled at two hospitals in Moshi, Tanzania. Confirmed acute Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), Dengue virus (DENV), and flavivirus infection were defined as a positive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) result. Presumptive acute DENV infection was defined as a positive anti-DENV immunoglobulin M (IgM) enzyme-linked immunsorbent assay (ELISA) result, and prior flavivirus exposure was defined as a positive anti-DENV IgG ELISA result. Among 870 participants, PCR testing was performed on 700 (80.5%). Of these, 55 (7.9%) had confirmed acute CHIKV infection, whereas no participants had confirmed acute DENV or flavivirus infection. Anti-DENV IgM serologic testing was performed for 747 (85.9%) participants, and of these 71 (9.5%) had presumptive acute DENV infection. Anti-DENV IgG serologic testing was performed for 751 (86.3%) participants, and of these 80 (10.7%) had prior flavivirus exposure. CHIKV infection was more common among infants and children than adults and adolescents (odds ratio [OR] 1.9, P = 0.026) and among HIV-infected patients with severe immunosuppression (OR 10.5, P = 0.007). CHIKV infection is an important but unrecognized cause of febrile illness in northern Tanzania. DENV or other closely related flaviviruses are likely also circulating.

Leptospirosis among hospitalized febrile patients in northern Tanzania.

We enrolled consecutive febrile admissions to two hospitals in Moshi, Tanzania. Confirmed leptospirosis was defined as a ≥ 4-fold increase in microscopic agglutination test (MAT) titer; probable leptospirosis as reciprocal MAT titer ≥ 800; and exposure to pathogenic leptospires as titer ≥ 100. Among 870 patients enrolled in the study, 453 (52.1%) had paired sera available, and 40 (8.8%) of these met the definition for confirmed leptospirosis. Of 832 patients with ≥ 1 serum sample available, 30 (3.6%) had probable leptospirosis and an additional 277 (33.3%) had evidence of exposure to pathogenic leptospires. Among those with leptospirosis the most common clinical diagnoses were malaria in 31 (44.3%) and pneumonia in 18 (25.7%). Leptospirosis was associated with living in a rural area (odds ratio [OR] 3.4, P < 0.001). Among those with confirmed leptospirosis, the predominant reactive serogroups were Mini and Australis. Leptospirosis is a major yet underdiagnosed cause of febrile illness in northern Tanzania, where it appears to be endemic.

WHO guidelines for antimicrobial treatment in children admitted to hospital in an area of intense Plasmodium falciparum transmission: prospective study.

OBJECTIVES: To assess the performance of WHO's "Guidelines for care at the first-referral level in developing countries" in an area of intense malaria transmission and identify bacterial infections in children with and without malaria. DESIGN: Prospective study. SETTING: District hospital in Muheza, northeast Tanzania. PARTICIPANTS: Children aged 2 months to 13 years admitted to hospital for febrile illness. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Sensitivity and specificity of WHO guidelines in diagnosing invasive bacterial disease; susceptibility of isolated organisms to recommended antimicrobials. RESULTS: Over one year, 3639 children were enrolled and 184 (5.1%) died; 2195 (60.3%) were blood slide positive for Plasmodium falciparum, 341 (9.4%) had invasive bacterial disease, and 142 (3.9%) were seropositive for HIV. The prevalence of invasive bacterial disease was lower in slide positive children (100/2195, 4.6%) than in slide negative children (241/1444, 16.7%). Non-typhi Salmonella was the most frequently isolated organism (52/100 (52%) of organisms in slide positive children and 108/241 (45%) in slide negative children). Mortality among children with invasive bacterial disease was significantly higher (58/341, 17%) than in children without invasive bacterial disease (126/3298, 3.8%) (P<0.001), and this was true regardless of the presence of P falciparum parasitaemia. The sensitivity and specificity of WHO criteria in identifying invasive bacterial disease in slide positive children were 60.0% (95% confidence interval 58.0% to 62.1%) and 53.5% (51.4% to 55.6%), compared with 70.5% (68.2% to 72.9%) and 48.1% (45.6% to 50.7%) in slide negative children. In children with WHO criteria for invasive bacterial disease, only 99/211(47%) of isolated organisms were susceptible to the first recommended antimicrobial agent. CONCLUSIONS: In an area exposed to high transmission of malaria, current WHO guidelines failed to identify almost a third of children with invasive bacterial disease, and more than half of the organisms isolated were not susceptible to currently recommended antimicrobials. Improved diagnosis and treatment of invasive bacterial disease are needed to reduce childhood mortality.

The difficult coughing child:prolonged acute cough in children

Cough is one of the most common symptoms that patients bring to the attention of primary care clinicians. Cough can be designated as acute ( 8 weeks in duration). The use of the term 'prolonged acute cough' in a cough guideline allows a period of natural resolution to occur before further investigations are warranted. The common causes are in children with post viral or pertussis like illnesses causing the cough. Persistent bacterial bronchitis typically occurs when an initial dry acute cough due to a viral infection becomes a prolonged wet cough remaining long after the febrile illness has resolved. This cough responds to a completed course of appropriate antibiotics.

Études des mécanismes d’induction de l’immunosuppression par le virus Herpès Humain 6

HHV-6 is a ubiquitous human herpesvirus. Most individuals become infected at the age of 2 years. Primary infection by the virus causes a self-limiting febrile illness called exanthem subitum or roseola. In adults, primary infection may cause mononucleosis-like illnesses. The infection usually remains latent in healthy individuals, but often reactivates in immunocompromised individuals, for example, transplant patients and AIDS patients. The virus has also been associated with cancers and lymphoproliferative disorders. The virus encodes two proteins that interact with p53. However, little is known concerning the impact of the virus on cell cycle progression in human cells. The investigations reported in the thesis were focused on this issue. We show here that that HHV-6 infection delays the cell cycle progression in human T cell line HSB-2, as well as in primary human T cells and causes their accumulation in S and G2/M phase. By degrading the viral DNA in the virus-infected cells, we show that the infected cells accumulate in the G2/M and not in the S phase. We observed an increase in the kinase activity of cdc2 in virus-infected cells despite lower levels of its catalytic partners, cyclin A and cyclin B. We show here that the viral early antigen p41 associates with, and increases the kinase activity of, CDK1. Our studies have shown that there is a drastic reduction of p21 protein, despite the virus-induced stabilization and activation of p53 suggesting that p53 may be transcriptionally inactivated in the virus-infected cells. This decrease of p21 in infected cells was partially restored by proteasome inhibitors. These results suggest that HHV-6 causes perturbations in the normal progression of cell cycle in human T cells. Autophagy is a physiological cell process during which old cellular constituents and long-lived proteins in cells are degraded. This process is regulated in a cell cycle-dependent manner. We show here that infection with HHV-6 induces autophagy in HSB-2 cells. This was shown by the induction of LC-3 II as well as by the appearance of autophagic vacuoles in the virus-infected cells. However, we found that the virus inhibits fusion between autophagic vacuoles and lysosomes formed in infected cells, thus evading the autophagic response of infected host cells. Finally we tried to investigate replication of the virus in human cells in the absence of P53; a tumor suppressor gene which is also known as "the guardian of the genome ". During these investigations, we found that that inhibition of p53 gene expression mediated by siRNA as well as its inhibition by pharmacological inhibitors leads to massive cell death in human T cell line HSB-2 that carries a wild-type p53. We show that this death also occurs in another cell line CEM, which carries a transcriptionally mutated p53. Interestingly, the cell death could be prevented by pharmacological inhibitors of autophagy and necroptosis. Taken together, our results provide important novel insights concerning the impact of HHV-6 on cell cycle regulation and autophagy as well as of basal level p53 in cell survival.

Linfocitos atípicos en dengue: papel en el diagnóstico y pronóstico de la enfermedad. Revisión sistemática de la literatura

El dengue es la arbovirosis de mayor incidencia mundial y una importante causa de morbilidad y mortalidad. Debido a que la enfermedad se presenta en principio como un cuadro febril inespecífico, se requieren herramientas que permitan reconocer y clasificar a los pacientes con dengue en forma temprana. Un parámetro de utilidad en este sentido puede ser la presencia de linfocitos atípicos. Objetivo: revisar los resultados de los trabajos originales existentes en la literatura sobre linfocitos atípicos e infección por virus dengue y su papel en el diagnóstico y pronóstico de la enfermedad. Materiales y métodos: para la revisión se emplearon los motores de búsqueda PubMed y Lilacs, bajo la combinación de términos Dengue AND Atypical lymphocyte (OR Reactive lymphocyte, OR Turk cell), limitando los hallazgos a estudios en humanos. La información obtenidafue clasificada por su contenido. Solo se incluyeron en el presente trabajo los estudios relevantes para el tema. Resultados: se ajustaron 68 referencias a la estrategia de búsqueda empleada, pero solo doce correspondían al objeto de la revisión. Todos los estudios incluidos reportaron presenciade linfocitos atípicos como hallazgo hematológico particular en pacientes con dengue y aunque no fue un hallazgo específico de la enfermedad, su concentración fue significativamente superioren estos pacientes, sobre todo en cuadros severos de la misma. Conclusiones: de acuerdo con la evidencia encontrada, puede considerarse que existe una asociación entre la presencia de linfocitos atípicos y la infección por el virus dengue; sin embargo, la intensidad y utilidad de este hallazgo requiere mayor estudio y análisis.

Efetividade da doxiciclina na profilaxia contra letptospirose

Leptospirosis is a worldwide zoonosis of considerable medical and economical importance that affects humans in both urban and rural contexts, as well as domestic animals and wild fauna. Leptospira interrogans is the causative agent and is transmitted to humans by indirect contact with contaminated soil or water. The clinical syndromes include sub clinical infection, self-limited anicteric febrile illness, and severe and potentially fatal illness, known as Weil´s syndrome. In developed countries, leptospirosis is related to occupational or recreational activities while in developing countries, outbreaks occur during floods. In those regions, traditional strategies to prevent the transmission are difficulties to be implemented because of costs and lack of community acceptance. In addition, no efficient vaccine is available for human use. Several studies have suggested that chemoprophylaxis with doxycycline pre and post-exposure may be effective to prevent leptospirosis. Leptospirosis has been reported in rural areas of the State of Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil since 1985 in rice farmers who present the anicteric illness. The disease cause great social and economics impact. The study was conducted in São Miguel where an epidemic of leptospirosis in rice farmers was reported. The main objective was to determine the efficacy of doxycycline in preventing Leptospira exposure. A taxa de soroprevalência de leptospirose na população estudada antes e após a colheita foi de 14,2% (n=22) e de 16.6% (n=27) respectivamente. Anti-Leptospira serology was determined for 61 subjects in two instances, pre and post-exposure to potential contaminated water. There was an increased risk of 29.0 per cent in acquiring infection for individuals that did not use doxycycline. In addition, an increased risk of 30.0 % observed in farmers who did not use protection when exposed to Leptospira. The adhesion to preventive chemoprophylaxis was 55.7%. Therefore doxycycline, under specific circunstances appears to be an effective alternative to protect against leptosprirosis infection. A large sample composed of individuals to adhere to preventive therapy is needed to define time, dosage and length of use of doxycycline in this area

Diagnóstico molecular de arboviroses brasileiras em soros de pacientes com doença febril aguda

Pós-graduação em Microbiologia - IBILCE

Arbovírus Morumbi (Phlebovirus : Bunnyaviridae) - estudo histopatológico e imuno-histoquímico do fígado na infecção experimental em camundongos: comparação entre as vias cerebral, intraperitoneal e subcutânea

O vírus Morumbi é membro do sorogrupo Phlebotomus fever (família Bunyavírídae: gênero Phlebovírus) nativo da Região Amazônica. Seu vetor é desconhecido, mas supõem-se ser transmitido por flebotomíneos. Foi isolado em 1988 de ser humano apresentando quadro febril agudo. Este arbovírus, quando inoculado em camundongo por via cerebral, demonstrou viscerotropismo, induzindo inclusive lesões no fígado do animal inoculado. Com os objetivos de: i) estabelecer as características anátomo-patológicas e imuno-histoquímicas em fígado de camundongos albinos Swíss recém-nascidos experimentalmente infectados pelo vírus Morumbi; ii) verificar se o vírus apresenta hepatotropismo diferenciado na dependência de inoculação pelas vias cerebral, peritoneal ou subcutânea; iii) caracterizar detalhadamente os padrões anátomo-patológicos sequenciais no fígado; iv) demonstrar a localização do antígeno viral no tecido hepático ao longo da infecção experimental; v) estudar possíveis inter-relações entre os achados anátomo-patológicos e os imuno-histoquímicos. Foram estudados experimentalmente 71 camundongos Swíss recém-nascidos (dois e três dias), distribuídos ao final do experimento como segue: 21 animais inoculados por via intracerebral (IC), 21 por via intraperitoneal (IP) e 29 animais inoculados por via subcutânea (SC). Utilizou-se a dose infectante 5,0DL 50 /0,02ml de suspensão de vírus. Outros trinta, animais que não receberam inóculos, foram utilizados como grupo controle. Subgrupos de oito animais (seis inoculados e dois do grupo controle) foram sacrificados diariamente a intervalos de 24 em 24 horas, até 96 horas para os grupos IC e IP e até 120 horas para o grupo SC. Fragmentos de fígado de todos os animais foram fixados em solução de formalina neutra a 10%, incluídos em parafina, de onde foram obtidos cortes de 5 mm que foram corados pela técnica de hematoxilina-eosina para análise morfológica e, cortes adicionais, foram submetidos à técnica de imuno-histoquímica (Sistema Envision, DAKO, USA), utilizando a fosfatase alcalina e soro hiperimune do vírus Morumbi preparado em camundongos jovens, para detecção de antígeno viral. Foram estudados seis parâmetros de lesão em áreas portais e nove outros nos lóbulos, que foram semiquantificados numa escala que variou de zero (0) a três cruzes (+++), onde zero significou ausência de lesão e três cruzes lesão intensa. À microscopia óptica, ficou evidente que o vírus Morumbi inoculado em camundongos por três diferentes vias induz lesões em áreas portais e lobulares, caracterizando uma hepatite aguda com presença de corpúsculos acidófilos, semelhantes aos corpúsculos de Councilman -Rocha Lima, de distribuição irregular nos lóbulos, cujo aparecimento foi observado 24 horas pós-inoculação (p.i.) e atingiu o máximo de intensidade às 72 horas p.i. em animais inoculados por via IP. O exame imuno-histoquímico mostrou presença leve de antígeno viral a partir de 24 horas p.i. no grupo IC e a partir de 48 horas p.i. nos grupos IP e SC, havendo certo paralelismo em relação a intensidade de lesão morfológica, tendo- se observado o máximo de detecção de antígeno viral em animais inoculados por via IP e sacrificados às 72 horas p.i. A distribuição geral de antígeno foi observada especificamente nos lóbulos hepáticos, no citoplasma de hepatócitos íntegros e necrosados e no interior de células de Kupffer, não havendo preferência por nenhuma das três zonas do lóbulo. Concluiu-se que: i) o modelo de infecção experimental em camundongos foi excelente para o estudo das lesões causadas pelo vírus Morumbi, podendo ser selecionada a via IP como referencial; ii) em todas as vias utilizadas (IP, IC e SC) se confirmou a infecção pelo vírus Morumbi com marcante detecção de seu antígeno, no tecido hepático de camundongos Swiss; iii) a presença de antígeno do vírus Morumbi no fígado desses camundongos associou-se ao aparecimento de hepatite aguda, com necrose focal; iv)hepatite intensa pôde ser observada em fígado de camundongos sacrificados 72 h p.i. com o vírus Morumbi por via IP, o que não foi verificado com as outras duas vias; v) a hepatite aguda mostrou-se limitada, neste experimento, tendendo a desaparecer na maioria dos camundongos inoculados, com avançar das horas; vi) colestase não alteração freqüente na hepatite experimental pelo vírus Morumbi, quando inoculada por via IC, IP e SC; vii) o antígeno do vírus Morumbi teve predominância pela localização intracitoplasmática, padrão granular, nos hepatócitos e células de Kupffer; viii) antígeno viral foi detectado em fragmento hepático de animais experimentalmente inoculados com o vírus Morumbi, a partir das 24 horas via IC e a partir de 48 horas nas vias IP e SC.

Identification of Novel Compounds Inhibiting Chikungunya Virus-Induced Cell Death by High Throughput Screening of a Kinase Inhibitor Library

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a mosquito-borne arthrogenic alphavirus that causes acute febrile illness in humans accompanied by joint pains and in many cases, persistent arthralgia lasting weeks to years. The re-emergence of CHIKV has resulted in numerous outbreaks in the eastern hemisphere, and threatens to expand in the foreseeable future. Unfortunately, no effective treatment is currently available. The present study reports the use of resazurin in a cell-based high-throughput assay, and an image-based high-content assay to identify and characterize inhibitors of CHIKV-infection in vitro. CHIKV is a highly cytopathic virus that rapidly kills infected cells. Thus, cell viability of HuH-7 cells infected with CHIKV in the presence of compounds was determined by measuring metabolic reduction of resazurin to identify inhibitors of CHIKV-associated cell death. A kinase inhibitor library of 4,000 compounds was screened against CHIKV infection of HuH-7 cells using the resazurin reduction assay, and the cell toxicity was also measured in non-infected cells. Seventy-two compounds showing >= 50% inhibition property against CHIKV at 10 mu M were selected as primary hits. Four compounds having a benzofuran core scaffold (CND0335, CND0364, CND0366 and CND0415), one pyrrolopyridine (CND0545) and one thiazol-carboxamide (CND3514) inhibited CHIKV-associated cell death in a dose-dependent manner, with EC50 values between 2.2 mu M and 7.1 mu M. Based on image analysis, these 6 hit compounds did not inhibit CHIKV replication in the host cell. However, CHIKV-infected cells manifested less prominent apoptotic blebs typical of CHIKV cytopathic effect compared with the control infection. Moreover, treatment with these compounds reduced viral titers in the medium of CHIKV-infected cells by up to 100-fold. In conclusion, this cell-based high-throughput screening assay using resazurin, combined with the image-based high content assay approach identified compounds against CHIKV having a novel antiviral activity -inhibition of virus-induced CPE - likely by targeting kinases involved in apoptosis.

Isolation and characterization of mayaro virus from a human in Acre, Brazil

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Detection of Mayaro virus infections during a dengue outbreak in Mato Grosso, Brazil

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Experimental infection of suckling mice by subcutaneous inoculation with Oropouche virus

Oropouche virus, of the family Bunyaviridae, genus Orthobunyavirus, serogroup Simbu, is an important causative agent of arboviral febrile illness in Brazil. An estimated 500,000 cases of Oropouche fever have occurred in Brazil in the last 30 years, with recorded cases also in Panama, Peru, Suriname and Trinidad. We have developed an experimental model of Oropouche virus infection in neonatal BALB/c mouse by subcutaneous inoculation. The vast majority of infected animals developed disease on the 5th day post infection, characterized mainly by lethargy and paralysis, progressing to death within 10 days. Viral replication was documented in brain cells by in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry and virus titration. Multi-step immunohistochemistry indicated neurons as the main target cells of OROV infection. Histopathology revealed glial reaction and astrocyte activation in the brain and spinal cord, with neuronal apoptosis. Spleen hyperplasia and mild meningitis were also found, without viable virus detected in liver and spleen. This is the first report of an experimental mouse model of OROV infection, with severe involvement of the central nervous system, and should become useful in pathogenesis studies, as well as in preclinical testing of therapeutic interventions for this emerging pathogen. (c) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Short Report: Identification of Oropouche Orthobunyavirus in the Cerebrospinal Fluid of Three Patients in the Amazonas, Brazil

Oropouche fever is the second most frequent arboviral infection in Brazil, surpassed only by dengue. Oropouche virus (OROV) causes large and explosive outbreaks of acute febrile illness in cities and villages in the Amazon and Central-Plateau regions. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples from 110 meningoencephalitis patients were analyzed. The RNA extracted from fluid was submitted to reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and sequencing to identify OROV. Three CSF samples showed the presence of OROV causing infection in the central nervous system (CNS). These patients are adults. Two of the patients had other diseases affecting CNS and immune systems: neurocysticercosis and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, respectively. Nucleotide sequence analysis showed that the OROV from the CSF of these patients belonged to genotype I. We show here that severe Oropouche disease is occurring during outbreaks of this virus in Brazil