Contrôle de l'expression de la protéine PHEX et rôle de PHEX et FGF23 dans la minéralisation par les cellules MC3T3

PHEX est une protéine importante dans le processus de minéralisation osseuse. Des mutations ou la délétion d’une partie de ce gène causent l’hypophosphatémie liée au chromosome X (XLH). Cette maladie est caractérisée par une hypophosphatémie, accompagnée de défauts de minéralisation, de rachitisme et de lésions ostéomalaciques. Avec l’hypophosphatémie, les taux circulants de vitamine D devraient être augmentés, ce qui n’est pas le cas d’où une régulation anormale de la production de vitamine D a lieu. Cependant, malgré le fait que cette protéine soit une peptidase, aucun substrat physiologique n’a encore été répertorié pour PHEX. PHEX est une protéine membranaire de type II de la famille M13 des métalloendopeptidases à zinc possédant un court domaine N-terminal cytosolique, un segment transmembrannaire d’environ 20 acides aminés et une large portion C-terminale extracellulaire où se trouve le site actif de l’enzyme. PHEX est exprimée de façon majoritaire dans les os et dans les dents et elle apparaît à l’initiation de la minéralisation. Les patients souffrant de XLH et la souris Hyp, qui est un modèle animal de la maladie humaine, montrent des quantités importantes de la protéine FGF23. De plus, FGF23 est impliqué dans une autre maladie reliée au métabolisme du phosphate, l’hypophosphatémie rachitique autosomale dominante (ADHR) où des mutations de FGF23 causent sensiblement les mêmes symptômes que XLH. FGF23 est produit principalement par les ostéoblastes et les ostéocytes. FGF23 cause une hypophosphatémie par la diminution de l’expression du cotransporteur NaPi de type II, responsable de la réabsorption du phosphate rénal. L’hypothèse proposée dans la littérature serait que PHEX activerait ou inactiverait des peptides importants pour la minéralisation osseuse. Plus spécifiquement, l’activation ou l’inactivation de ces peptides aurait pour rôle de réguler les quantités de FGF23. Selon l’hypothèse mentionnée précédemment, la régulation de PHEX pourrait donc avoir un effet sur la minéralisation. Une quantité croissante de données sur la régulation de PHEX sont maintenant disponibles. Par exemple, la vitamine D diminue l’expression de PHEX tandis que les glucocorticoïdes et l’hormone de croissance augmentent son expression. Dans une première étude, nous avons voulu déterminer si un peptide relié à la minéralisation osseuse, le PTHrP1-34, pouvait réguler l’expression de PHEX. Nous avons déterminé que le PTHrP1-34 peut réguler de façon négative l’expression de PHEX dans les cellules UMR-106, une lignée cellulaire ostéoblastique. Cette régulation passe par la voie de l’AMPc/protéine kinase A. De plus, cette diminution d’expression est également observée au jour 7 dans des cultures primaires d’ostéoblastes de rat en minéralisation. Par la suite, nous avons étudié un mutant de PHEX, le mutant E4Q retrouvé chez un patient souffrant de XLH, où la mutation se retrouve dans le domaine cytosolique de PHEX. Cette mutation n’interfère pas avec le site catalytique de l’enzyme puisque ce mutant de PHEX peut tout aussi bien cliver un substrat synthétique que la protéine sauvage. Il a été déterminé que cette mutation annule un motif di-acide. Nous avons démontré que ce motif di-acide est responsable de la liaison de PHEX à COPII, responsable de la formation de vésicules de sécrétion. De plus, il semblerait que ce motif soit important, probablement par son interaction avec COPII, à l’incorporation de PHEX dans des vésicules de calcification, lesdites vésicules étant importantes dans le processus de minéralisation. Finalement, des essais de compétitions ont démontré que la minéralisation pouvait être perturbée lorsque l’on surexprimait la queue cytosolique sauvage de PHEX, contrairement à la queue mutée. Ceci suggère possiblement que l’interaction avec COPII menant à l’incorporation de PHEX dans les vésicules de calcification ou d’autres protéines comprenant de tels motifs pourrait être importante pour la minéralisation. Finalement, la dernière étude porte sur la protéine FGF23. Nous avons démontré, par la surexpression de FGF23 dans la lignée MC3T3 d’ostéoblastes de souris, que cette surexpression a un effet sur la sénescence de ces cellules. En effet, des essais de sénescence ont montré l’augmentation de celle-ci lorsque FGF23 est surexprimé. Par contre, la prolifération n’est pas altérée. De plus, il semblerait que la différenciation soit plus rapide, tel qu’observé par une minéralisation survenant plus tôt, mais n’étant pas plus importante. Bref, la surexpression de FGF23 semblerait faire en sorte que les ostéoblastes se différencient plus rapidement et passent donc à un état de sénescence prématuré comparativement aux cellules sauvages. Ceci est en accord avec la littérature où KLOTHO, un cofacteur de FGF23 permettant sa liaison avec une plus grande affinité sur son récepteur, lorsqu’inactivé démontre un phénotype similaire au vieillissement incluant un phénotype de sénescence.

Cloning and characterization of FGF23 as a causative factor of tumor-induced osteomalacia

Tumor-induced osteomalacia (TIO) is one of the paraneoplastic diseases characterized by hypophosphatemia caused by renal phosphate wasting. Because removal of responsible tumors normalizes phosphate metabolism, an unidentified humoral phosphaturic factor is believed to be responsible for this syndrome. To identify the causative factor of TIO, we obtained cDNA clones that were abundantly expressed only in a tumor causing TIO and constructed tumor-specific cDNA contigs. Based on the sequence of one major contig, we cloned 2,270-bp cDNA, which turned out to encode fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23). Administration of recombinant FGF23 decreased serum phosphate in mice within 12 h. When Chinese hamster ovary cells stably expressing FGF23 were s.c. implanted into nude mice, hypophosphatemia with increased renal phosphate clearance was observed. In addition, a high level of serum alkaline phosphatase, low 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, deformity of bone, and impairment of body weight gain became evident. Histological examination showed marked increase of osteoid and widening of growth plate. Thus, continuous production of FGF23 reproduced clinical, biochemical, and histological features of TIO in vivo. Analyses for recombinant FGF23 products produced by Chinese hamster ovary cells indicated proteolytic cleavage of FGF23 at the RXXR motif. Recent genetic study indicates that missense mutations in this RXXR motif of FGF23 are responsible for autosomal dominant hypophosphatemic rickets, another hypophosphatemic disease with similar features to TIO. We conclude that overproduction of FGF23 causes TIO, whereas mutations in the FGF23 gene result in autosomal dominant hypophosphatemic rickets possibly by preventing proteolytic cleavage and enhancing biological activity of FGF23.

N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) induced mutations within the Klotho gene lead to ectopic calcification and reduced lifespan in mouse models

Ectopic calcification (EC), which is the pathological deposition of calcium and phosphate in extra-skeletal tissues, may be associated with hypercalcaemic and hyperphosphataemic disorders, or it may occur in the absence of metabolic abnormalities. In addition, EC may be inherited as part of several monogenic disorders and studies of these have provided valuable insights into the metabolic pathways regulating mineral metabolism. For example, studies of tumoural calcinosis, a disorder characterised by hyperphosphataemia and progressive EC, have revealed mutations of fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), polypeptide N-acetyl galactosaminyltransferase 3 (GALNT3) and klotho (KL), which are all part of a phosphate-regulating pathway. However, such studies in humans are limited by the lack of available large families with EC, and to facilitate such studies we assessed the progeny of mice treated with the chemical mutagen N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) for EC. This identified two mutants with autosomal recessive forms of EC, and reduced lifespan, designated Ecalc1 and Ecalc2. Genetic mapping localized the Ecalc1 and Ecalc2 loci to a 11.0 Mb region on chromosome 5 that contained the klotho gene (Kl), and DNA sequence analysis identified nonsense (Gln203Stop) and missense (Ile604Asn) Kl mutations in Ecalc1 and Ecalc2 mice, respectively. The Gln203Stop mutation, located in KL1 domain, was severely hypomorphic and led to a 17-fold reduction of renal Kl expression. The Ile604Asn mutation, located in KL2 domain, was predicted to impair klotho protein stability and in vitro expression studies in COS-7 cells revealed endoplasmic reticulum retention of the Ile604Asn mutant. Further phenotype studies undertaken in Ecalc1 (kl203X/203X) mice demonstrated elevations in plasma concentrations of phosphate, FGF23 and 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. Thus, two allelic variants of Kl that develop EC and represent mouse models for tumoural calcinosis have been established. © 2015 Esapa et al.

A mouse with an N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) induced Trp589Arg Galnt3 mutation represents a model for hyperphosphataemic familial tumoural calcinosis

Mutations of UDP-N-acetyl-alpha-D-galactosamine polypeptide N-acetyl galactosaminyl transferase 3 (GALNT3) result in familial tumoural calcinosis (FTC) and the hyperostosis-hyperphosphataemia syndrome (HHS), which are autosomal recessive disorders characterised by soft-tissue calcification and hyperphosphataemia. To facilitate in vivo studies of these heritable disorders of phosphate homeostasis, we embarked on establishing a mouse model by assessing progeny of mice treated with the chemical mutagen N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU), and identified a mutant mouse, TCAL, with autosomal recessive inheritance of ectopic calcification, which involved multiple tissues, and hyperphosphataemia; the phenotype was designated TCAL and the locus, Tcal. TCAL males were infertile with loss of Sertoli cells and spermatozoa, and increased testicular apoptosis. Genetic mapping localized Tcal to chromosome 2 (62.64-71.11 Mb) which contained the Galnt3. DNA sequence analysis identified a Galnt3 missense mutation (Trp589Arg) in TCAL mice. Transient transfection of wild-type and mutant Galnt3-enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) constructs in COS-7 cells revealed endoplasmic reticulum retention of the Trp589Arg mutant and Western blot analysis of kidney homogenates demonstrated defective glycosylation of Galnt3 in Tcal/Tcal mice. Tcal/Tcal mice had normal plasma calcium and parathyroid hormone concentrations; decreased alkaline phosphatase activity and intact Fgf23 concentrations; and elevation of circulating 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. Quantitative reverse transcriptase-PCR (qRT-PCR) revealed that Tcal/Tcal mice had increased expression of Galnt3 and Fgf23 in bone, but that renal expression of Klotho, 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1α-hydroxylase (Cyp27b1), and the sodium-phosphate co-transporters type-IIa and -IIc was similar to that in wild-type mice. Thus, TCAL mice have the phenotypic features of FTC and HHS, and provide a model for these disorders of phosphate metabolism. © 2012 Esapa et al.

Advanced prostate cancer as a cause of oncogenic osteomalacia: an underdiagnosed condition

Tumor-induced osteomalacia (TIO) is a paraneoplastic bone mineral disturbance related to fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) overproduction by the tumor, usually from mesenchymal origin. Such condition leads to high phosphate renal wasting and, consequently, to cumbersome symptoms as weakness, bone pain, and fractures. Case report. We report a case of an advanced castration-refractory prostate cancer patient, which developed severe hypophosphatemia with elevated phosphate excretion fraction. TIO was suspected, and increased levels of FGF23 reinforced such diagnosis. The patient died 4 months after being diagnosed with TIO. This case suggests that TIO has a dismal prognosis in prostate cancer patients. The clinical oncology community must be aware about such disturbance that can be present in those patients with weakness, bone pain, and hypophosphatemia.

Potential Effects of Alendronate on Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 Levels and Effective Control of Hypercalciuria in an Adult with Jansen's Metaphyseal Chondrodysplasia

Context: Jansen's metaphyseal chondrodysplasia (JMC) is a rare autosomal dominant disorder caused by activating mutations in the PTH 1 receptor (PTH1R; PTH/PTHrP receptor), leading to chronic hypercalcemia and hypercalciuria. Hypophosphatemia is also a hallmark of JMC, and recently, increased fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) levels have been reported in this syndrome. Hypercalcemia has been associated with increased cardiovascular risk; however, cardiovascular disease has not been extensively investigated in JMC patients. Objective: The aim of the study was to describe the long-term follow-up of a JMC patient with regard to the management of hypercalciuria, the evaluation of FGF23 levels under bisphosphonate treatment, and the investigation of cardiovascular repercussion of chronic hypercalcemia. Results: The diagnosis of JCM was confirmed by molecular analysis (p.H223R mutation in PTH1R). The patient was followed from 5 to 27 yr of age. Asymptomatic nephrolithiasis was diagnosed at 18 yr of age, prompting pharmacological management of hypercalciuria. Treatment with alendronate reduced hypercalciuria; however, normocalciuria was only obtained with the association of thiazide diuretic. Serum FGF23 levels, measured under alendronate treatment, were repeatedly within the normal range. Subclinical cardiovascular disease was investigated when the patient was 26 yr old, after 19 yr of sustained mild hypercalcemia; carotid and vertebral artery ultrasonography was normal, as well as coronary computed tomography angiography (calcium score = 0). Conclusion: The long-term follow-up of our JMC patient has provided insight on therapeutic strategies to control hypercalciuria, on the potential effects of alendronate on FGF23 levels, and on the lack of detectable cardiovascular disease at young adulthood after prolonged exposure to hypercalcemia. (J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97: 1098-1103, 2012)

Tumores indutores de osteomalácia: diagnóstico, caracterização tumoral e avaliação evolutiva em longo prazo de nove pacientes

INTRODUÇÃO: Tumores indutores de osteomalácia (TIOs) são raros, geralmente apresentam origem mesenquimal, têm produção excessiva de fosfatoninas sendo a mais comum o FGF23 (Fibroblast Growth Factor 23) que, em níveis elevados, provoca osteomalácia hipofosfatêmica. A cura dos TIOs envolve a remoção completa do tumor, o que torna essencial sua localização. OBJETIVOS: (1) caracterizar nove pacientes com TIO ao diagnóstico e avaliá-los evolutivamente em longo prazo; (2) avaliar a eficácia da cintilografia com Octreotida (Octreoscan®) e a da cintilografia de corpo inteiro com Mibi (MIBI) na detecção dos TIOs. MÉTODOS: O acompanhamento dos pacientes consistiu na avaliação clínica, na avaliação laboratorial com ênfase no metabolismo ósseo e na realização de exames de imagem para caracterização das deformidades esqueléticas. Para a localização dos TIOs, os pacientes foram submetidos a exames de Octreoscan®, MIBI, ressonância magnética (RM) e tomografia computadorizada (TC). RESULTADOS: O período de observação dos pacientes variou de dois a 25 anos. Ao diagnóstico, todos exibiam fraqueza muscular, dores ósseas e fraturas de fragilidade. Em relação à avaliação laboratorial, apresentavam: hipofosfatemia com taxa de reabsorção tubular de fosfato reduzida, fosfatase alcalina aumentada e níveis elevados de FGF23. O Octreoscan® permitiu a identificação dos TIOs nos nove pacientes e o MIBI possibilitou a localização dos TIOs em seis pacientes, sendo que ambos os exames foram concordantes entre si e com os exames topográficos (RM ou TC). Os achados histopatológicos das lesões dos nove pacientes confirmaram tratar-se de oito tumores mesenquimais fosfatúricos (PMTs) benignos e um PMT maligno. Após a primeira intervenção cirúrgica para a remoção dos TIOs, quatro pacientes encontram-se em remissão da doença e cinco evoluíram com persistência tumoral. Dos cinco, quatro foram reoperados e um aguarda nova cirurgia. Dos que foram reoperados, um paciente se mantém em remissão da doença, um foi a óbito por complicações clínicas, uma teve doença metastática e o último apresentou recidiva tumoral três anos após a segunda cirurgia. Deformidades ósseas graves foram observadas nos pacientes cujo diagnóstico e/ou tratamento clínico foram tardios. O tratamento da osteomalácia foi iniciado com fosfato e perdurou até a ressecção tumoral, tendo sido reintroduzido nos casos de persistência/recidiva tumoral. Quatro pacientes que fizerem uso regular desse medicamento por mais de seis anos evoluíram com hiperparatireoidismo terciário (HPT). CONCLUSÕES: O estudo revelou que tanto o Octreoscan® como o MIBI foram capazes de localizar os TIOs. Por isso, incentivamos a realização do MIBI nos locais onde o Octreoscan® não for disponível. Uma equipe experiente é indispensável para o sucesso cirúrgico visto que os tumores, embora benignos, costumam ser infiltrativos. Recomendamos o seguimento por tempo indeterminado em função do risco de recidiva tumoral. Assim como o FGF23, consideramos o fósforo um excelente marcador de remissão, persistência e recidiva dos TIOs. O diagnóstico e o tratamento precoce são fundamentais para a melhora dos sintomas podendo minimizar as deformidades esqueléticas e as sequelas ósseas. O uso prolongado do fosfato no tratamento da osteomalácia hipofosfatêmica foi associado ao desenvolvimento do HPT

Fibroblast growth factor 23 and markers of mineral metabolism in individuals with preserved renal function

Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) is a bone-derived hormone that regulates phosphate homeostasis. Circulating FGF23 is elevated in chronic kidney disease (CKD) and independently associated with poor renal and cardiovascular outcomes and mortality. Because the study of FGF23 in individuals with normal renal function has received little attention, we examined in a large, population based study of 1128 participants the associations of FGF23 with markers of mineral metabolism and renal function. The median estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) of the cohort was 105 ml/min per 1.73 m2, and the median plasma FGF23 was 78.5 RU/ml. FGF23 increased and plasma 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 decreased significantly below an eGFR threshold of 102 and 99 ml/min per 1.73 m2, respectively. In contrast, plasma parathyroid hormone increased continuously with decreasing eGFR and was first significantly elevated at an eGFR of 126 ml/min per 1.73 m2. On multivariable analysis adjusting for sex, age, body mass index, and GFR, FGF23 was negatively associated with 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, and urinary absolute and fractional calcium excretion but not with serum calcium or parathyroid hormone. We found a positive association of FGF23 with plasma phosphate, but no association with urinary absolute or fractional phosphate excretion and, unexpectedly, a positive association with tubular maximum phosphate reabsorption/GFR. Thus, in the absence of CKD, parathyroid hormone increases earlier than FGF23 when the eGFR decreases. The increase in FGF23 occurs at a higher eGFR threshold than previously reported and is closely associated with a decrease in 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. We speculate that the main demonstrable effect of FGF23 in the setting of preserved renal function is suppression of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 rather than stimulation of renal phosphate excretion.

Phosphate uptake and phosphate transporter expression during immune cell proliferation in in vitro and ex vivo leukemic murine models

Dissertação de Mestrado, Ciências Biomédicas, Departamento de Medicina e Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade do Algarve, 2015

Fibroblast growth factors:new insights, new targets in the management of diabetes

The fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family consists of 22 evolutionarily and structurally related proteins (FGF1 to FGF23; with FGF15 being the rodent ortholog of human FGF19). Based on their mechanism of action, FGFs can be categorized into intracrine, autocrine/paracrine and endocrine subgroups. Both autocrine/paracrine and endocrine FGFs are secreted from their cells of origin and exert their effects on target cells by binding to and activating specific single-pass transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptors (FGFRs). Moreover, FGF binding to FGFRs requires specific cofactors, namely heparin/heparan sulfate proteoglycans or Klothos for autocrine/paracrine and endocrine FGF signaling, respectively. FGFs are vital for embryonic development and mediate a broad spectrum of biological functions, ranging from cellular excitability to angiogenesis and tissue regeneration. Over the past decade certain FGFs (e.g. FGF1, FGF10, FGF15/FGF19 and FGF21) have been further recognized as regulators of energy homeostasis, metabolism and adipogenesis, constituting novel therapeutic targets for obesity and obesity-related cardiometabolic disease. Until recently, translational research has been mainly focused on FGF21, due to the pleiotropic, beneficial metabolic actions and the relatively benign safety profile of its engineered variants. However, increasing evidence regarding the role of additional FGFs in the regulation of metabolic homeostasis and recent developments regarding novel, engineered FGF variants have revitalized the research interest into the therapeutic potential of certain additional FGFs (e.g. FGF1 and FGF15/FGF19). This review presents a brief overview of the FGF family, describing the mode of action of the different FGFs subgroups, and focuses on FGF1 and FGF15/FGF19, which appear to also represent promising new targets for the treatment of obesity and type 2 diabetes.