Functional anatomy of human eyeblink conditioning determined with regional cerebral glucose metabolism and positron-emission tomography.

Relative cerebral glucose metabolism was examined with positron-emission tomography (PET) as a measure of neuronal activation during performance of the classically conditioned eyeblink response in 12 young adult subjects. Each subject received three sessions: (i) a control session with PET scan in which unpaired presentations of the tone conditioned stimulus and corneal airpuff unconditioned stimulus were administered, (ii) a paired training session to allow associative learning to occur, and (iii) a paired test session with PET scan. Brain regions exhibiting learning-related activation were identified as those areas that showed significant differences in glucose metabolism between the unpaired control condition and well-trained state in the 9 subjects who met the learning criterion. Areas showing significant activation included bilateral sites in the inferior cerebellar cortex/deep nuclei, anterior cerebellar vermis, contralateral cerebellar cortex and pontine tegmentum, ipsilateral inferior thalamus/red nucleus, ipsilateral hippocampal formation, ipsilateral lateral temporal cortex, and bilateral ventral striatum. Among all subjects, including those who did not meet the learning criterion, metabolic changes in ipsilateral cerebellar nuclei, bilateral cerebellar cortex, anterior vermis, contralateral pontine tegmentum, ipsilateral hippocampal formation, and bilateral striatum correlated with degree of learning. The localization to cerebellum and its associated brainstem circuitry is consistent with neurobiological studies in the rabbit model of eyeblink classical conditioning and neuropsychological studies in brain-damaged humans. In addition, these data support a role for the hippocampus in conditioning and suggest that the ventral striatum may also be involved.

Committee report: Guidelines for human startle eyeblink electromyographic studies

The human startle response is a sensitive, noninvasive measure of central nervous system activity that is Currently used in a wide variety of research and clinical settings. In this article, we raise methodological issues and present recommendations for optimal methods of startle blink electromyographic (EMG) response elicitation, recording, quantification, and reporting. It is hoped that this report Will foster more methodological validity and reliability in research using the startle response, Lis well Lis increase the detail with which relevant methodology is reported in publications using this measure.

Cognitive and structural aspects of addiction: Relation between iris patterns, time perception, eyeblink rate, impulsivity and cigarette addiction

Objectif : Le but de ce travail est d'étudier les corrélations existantes entre les patterns de l'iris, la perception du temps et la fréquence de clignement des paupières (eye blink rate) et ceci en relation avec l'addiction à la cigarette. Méthodologie: Revue de la littérature existante. Expériences sur une cohorte d'au moins trente sujets fumeurs/non-fumeurs. Analyses statistiques. Résultats: Nos résultats confirment qu'il existe des relations entre l'impulsivité, les patterns d'iris, l'eye blink rate spontané et la perception du temps. Nous observons également que l'addiction à la cigarette et son niveau de dépendance ont une influence sur ces différentes mesures. En effet, les sujets fumeurs tendent à avoir une personnalité plus impulsive par rapport aux sujets contrôles. On remarque également une nette diminution de l'eye blink rate dans le groupe des fumeurs et une tendance à la sur-estimation du temps qui passe. Conclusion : Ce travail nous permet de mieux comprendre les différentes corrélations qui existent entre les différentes variables que nous avons mesurées (patterns d'iris, score d'impulsivité et eye blink rate) ainsi que leur relation à l'addiction à la cigarette. Dès lors qu'il est avéré que les fumeurs peuvent avoir une perception du temps altérée par rapport au groupe contrôle, il serait intéressant d'en étudier l'évolution sur le long terme (aggravation avec la durée du tabagisme actif) ainsi que les conséquences qui en découlent écologiquement au moyen d'études longitudinales et de terrain.

Does emotion modulate the blink reflex in human conditioning? Startle potentiation during pleasant and unpleasant cues in the picture-picture paradigm

Emotional processes modulate the size of the eyeblink startle reflex in a picture-viewing paradigm, but it is unclear whether emotional processes are responsible for blink modulation in human conditioning. Experiment 1 involved an aversive differential conditioning phase followed by an extinction phase in which acoustic startle probes were presented during CS+, CS-, and intertrial intervals. Valence ratings and affective priming showed the CS+ was unpleasant postacquisition. Blink startle magnitude was larger during CS+ than during CS-. Experiment 2 used the same design in two groups trained with pleasant or unpleasant pictorial USs. Ratings and affective priming indicated that the CS+ had become pleasant or unpleasant in the respective group. Regardless of CS valence, blink startle was larger during CS+ than CS- in both groups. Thus, startle was not modulated by CS valence.

Affect, attention, or anticipatory arousal? Human blink startle modulation in forward and backward affective conditioning

Affect modulates the blink startle reflex in the picture-viewing paradigm, however, the process responsible for reflex modulation during conditional stimuli (CSs) that have acquired valence through affective conditioning remains unclear. In Experiment 1, neutral shapes (CSs) and valenced or neutral pictures (USs) were paired in a forward (CS → US) manner. Pleasantness ratings supported affective learning of positive and negative valence. Post-acquisition, blink reflexes were larger during the pleasant and unpleasant CSs than during the neutral CS. Rather than affect, attention or anticipatory arousal were suggested as sources of startle modulation. Experiment 2 confirmed that affective learning in the picture–picture paradigm was not affected by whether the CS preceded the US. Pleasantness ratings and affective priming revealed similar extents of affective learning following forward, backward or simultaneous pairings of CSs and USs. Experiment 3 utilized a backward conditioning procedure (US → CS) to minimize effects of US anticipation. Again, blink reflexes were larger during CSs paired with valenced USs regardless of US valence implicating attention rather than anticipatory arousal or affect as the process modulating startle in this paradigm.

Verbal instruction abolishes fear conditioned to racial out-group faces

Previous research has shown resistance to extinction of fear conditioned to racial out-group faces, suggesting that these stimuli may be subject to prepared fear learning. The current study replicated and extended previous research by using a different racial out-group, and testing the prediction that prepared fear learning is unaffected by verbal instructions. Four groups of Caucasian participants were trained with male in-group (Caucasian) or out-group (Chinese) faces as conditional stimuli; one paired with an electro-tactile shock (CS+) and one presented alone (CS). Before extinction, half the participants were instructed that no more shocks would be presented. Fear conditioning, indexed by larger electrodermal responses to, and blink startle modulation during the CS+, occurred during acquisition in all groups. Resistance to extinction of fear learning was found only in the racial out-group, no instruction condition. Fear conditioned to a racial out-group face was reduced following verbal instructions, contrary to predictions for the nature of prepared fear learning.

The effect of emotional and attentional load on attentional startle modulation

The interactive effects of emotion and attention on attentional startle modulation were investigated in two experiments. Participants performed a discrimination and counting task with two visual stimuli during which acoustic eyeblink startle-eliciting probes were presented at long lead intervals. In Experiment 1, this task was combined with aversive Pavlovian conditioning. In Group Attend CS+, the attended stimulus was followed by an aversive unconditional stimulus (US) and the ignored stimulus was presented alone whereas the ignored stimulus was paired with the US in Group Attend CS−. In Experiment 2, a non-aversive reaction time task US replaced the aversive US. Regardless of the conditioning manipulation and consistent with a modality non-specific account of attentional startle modulation, startle magnitude was larger during attended than ignored stimuli in both experiments. Blink latency shortening was differentially affected by the conditioning manipulations suggesting additive effects of conditioning and discrimination and counting task on blink startle.

Aging is associated with positive responding to neutral information but reduced recovery from negative information

Studies on aging and emotion suggest an increase in reported positive affect, a processing bias of positive over negative information, as well as increasingly adaptive regulation in response to negative events with advancing age. These findings imply that older individuals evaluate information differently, resulting in lowered reactivity to, and/or faster recovery from, negative information, while maintaining more positive responding to positive information. We examined this hypothesis in an ongoing study on Midlife in the US (MIDUS II) where emotional reactivity and recovery were assessed in a large number of respondents (N = 159) from a wide age range (36–84 years). We recorded eye-blink startle magnitudes and corrugator activity during and after the presentation of positive, neutral and negative pictures. The most robust age effect was found in response to neutral stimuli, where increasing age is associated with a decreased corrugator and eyeblink startle response to neutral stimuli. These data suggest that an age-related positivity effect does not essentially alter the response to emotion-laden information, but is reflected in a more positive interpretation of affectively ambiguous information. Furthermore, older women showed reduced corrugator recovery from negative pictures relative to the younger women and men, suggesting that an age-related prioritization of well-being is not necessarily reflected in adaptive regulation of negative affect.

Purpose in life predicts better emotional recovery from negative stimuli

Purpose in life predicts both health and longevity suggesting that the ability to find meaning from life’s experiences, especially when confronting life’s challenges, may be a mechanism underlying resilience. Having purpose in life may motivate reframing stressful situations to deal with them more productively, thereby facilitating recovery from stress and trauma. In turn, enhanced ability to recover from negative events may allow a person to achieve or maintain a feeling of greater purpose in life over time. In a large sample of adults (aged 36-84 years) from the MIDUS study (Midlife in the U.S., http://www.midus.wisc.edu/), we tested whether purpose in life was associated with better emotional recovery following exposure to negative picture stimuli indexed by the magnitude of the eyeblink startle reflex (EBR), a measure sensitive to emotional state. We differentiated between initial emotional reactivity (during stimulus presentation) and emotional recovery (occurring after stimulus offset). Greater purpose in life, assessed over two years prior, predicted better recovery from negative stimuli indexed by a smaller eyeblink after negative pictures offset, even after controlling for initial reactivity to the stimuli during the picture presentation, gender, age, trait affect, and other well-being dimensions. These data suggest a proximal mechanism by which purpose in life may afford protection from negative events and confer resilience is through enhanced automatic emotion regulation after negative emotional provocation.

Emotional habituation to filmed violence employing the startle probe response

This thesis reports on research examining the habituation of emotional variables to filmed violence. The following subjective emotional variables were assessed: positive feelings, anxiety, disgust, entertainment and anger. In addition, an objective measure of emotional response was recorded physiologically, using the startle eyeblink response. The mediating influence of personality, individual differences and contextual features on an individuals’ perception of and reaction to filmed violence were also explored. Study one was exploratory in nature served to identify and select the film stimuli to be employed in the subsequent studies. The primary aim of the study was to allow for the identification of violent stimuli considered to be most socially and culturally relevant. The present research builds on existing scientific literature which has began to appreciate that differences in the context of a portrayal holds important implications for its impact on viewers. Thus, a secondary and more specific desire of study one was to obtain an evaluation of the contextual features of the violent film segments. A sample of 30 participants viewed and rated the film stimuli on the variables of realism, fantasy and violence. From this exploratory study four violent film stimuli were subsequently employed. Study 2 used the eyeblink startle response proposed by Vrana, Spence and Lang (1988) to explore the habituation of emotional variables to a realistic depiction of filmed violence. Emotional response was assessed both objectively, using the eyeblink startle response and subjectively through individuals self-reports. In addition the study investigated the significance of individual differences as mediators of emotional response. Questionnaire and physiological data were obtained from 30 participants. Overall, repeated exposure to filmed violence resulted in a decline in both objective and subjective emotional response. Differences were identified in the manner in which men and women responded to the film. Women reacted initially and over time with more intense physiological and psychological reactions to the violent film than males. Specifically, men displayed more curiosity and reported greater entertainment and positive feelings in response to the film, whilst women found the violence more disgusting and reported higher levels of anger and anxiety. It was found that the eyeblink startle magnitude paralleled the subjective emotional processing of the violent film, thus providing further confirmatory evidence of its validity in the investigation of emotional reactions to a stimulus. Personality factors were found to mediate emotional response to filmed violence, with neuroticism most powerfully implicated. High levels of neuroticism were found to be associated with greater anger and anxiety and less positive feelings whilst viewing violent film. A high score on extraversion was correlated with higher levels of anger and lower levels of curiosity and entertainment. Whilst the aims of study 3 were identical to that of study 2, a variation in the contextual feature of the violent film stimuli under investigation was the distinguishing and pertinent feature. Study 2 provided data on the habituation of emotional response to a realistic depiction of filmed violence. Study 3 was concerned with emotional response over repeated exposure to a fantasized violent depiction. Therefore, allowing for a comparison regarding the effects of context on emotional response. The results of study 3, with respect to habituation of emotional response, personality and individual differences, were similar to that obtained in study 2. A comparison of the two studies, however, revealed that individuals responded significantly different to the contextual features of the violent portrayal. Compared to the fantasised portrayal the realistic film stimulus was reported to be more digusting, anxiety provoking and less entertaining. In addition, and not surprisingly respondents reported that the realistic portrayal resulted in the production of more anger and less positive feelings.

The effects of ethinylestradiol and progestins ("the pill") on cognitive function in pre-menopausal women

Oral contraceptives (OCs), often referred to as "the pill", are the most commonly employed form of reversible contraception. OCs are comprised of combined synthetic estrogen and progestin, which work to suppress ovulation and subsequently protect against pregnancy. To date, almost 200 million women have taken various formulations of OC, making it one of the most widely consumed classes of medication in the world. While a substantial body of literature has been dedicated to understanding the physical effects of OCs, much less is known about the long term consequences of OC use on brain anatomy and the associated cognitive effects. Accumulating evidence suggests that sex hormones may significantly affect human cognition. This phenomenon has been commonly studied in older populations, such as in post-menopausal women, while research in healthy, pre-menopausal women remains limited. The current review focused on the effects of OCs on human cognition, with the majority of studies comparing pre-menopausal OC users to naturally cycling women. Human neuroimaging data and animal studies are also described herein. Taken together, the published findings on OC use and human cognition are varied. Of those that do report positive results, OC users appear to have improved verbal memory, associative learning and spatial attention. We recommend future research to employ blinding procedures and randomised designs. Further, more detailed information pertaining to the specific generation and phasic type of OCs, as well as menstrual cycle phase of the OC non-users should be considered to help unmask the potential impact of OC use on human cognition.

Ritmo de piscar em portadores de pterígio antes e após a exérese

OBJETIVO: Avaliar o ritmo de piscar de portadores de pterígio antes e depois da exérese. MÉTODOS: Foram avaliados os movimentos palpebrais de 41 pacientes antes e 60 dias depois da remoção cirúrgica da lesão. Os movimentos palpebrais foram capturados durante 1 minuto, usando filmadora Sony Digital 8 DCR - TRV110, sob iluminação artificial, com o indivíduo em posição primária do olhar, tendo como ponto de fixação a própria filmadora. As imagens obtidas foram processadas por computador, quantificando-se o total de movimentos de piscar, o número de piscar completo e incompleto, e as respectivas durações. Os dados foram submetidos à análise estatística. RESULTADOS: Antes da cirurgia 36,36% dos pacientes queixavam-se de sensação de corpo estranho e após a cirurgia, 61,02% estavam assintomáticos. A avaliação do ritmo de piscar revelou que a freqüência do piscar incompleto aumentou no pós-operatório. A duração do piscar não se alterou antes e após a cirurgia. CONCLUSÃO: A exérese do pterígio leva à diminuição dos sintomas irritativos. Após a remoção da lesão, houve discreto aumento da freqüência de piscar incompleto. Há a possibilidade da presença do pterígio não estar relacionada com alterações do filme lacrimal, considerando que a alteração do ritmo de piscar foi discreta. No entanto, outros estudos deverão ser realizados para afirmar ou contestar esta hipótese.

Learning in the cerebellar nucleus is necessary for acquisition of Pavlovian eyelid conditioning

The cumulative work presented here supports the hypothesis that plasticity in the cerebellar cortex and cerebellar nuclei mediates a simple associative form of motor teaming-Pavlovian eyelid conditioning. It was previously demonstrated that focal ablative lesions of cerebellar anterior lobe or pharmacological block of the cerebellar cortex output disrupted the timing of the conditioned eyeblink response, unmasking a response with a relatively fixed and very short latency to onset. The results of this thesis demonstrate that the short-latency responses are due to associative learning. Unpaired training does not support the acquisition of short-latency responses while the rate of acquisition of short-latency responses during paired training is approximately the same as that of timed conditioned responses. The acquisition of short-latency responses is dependent on an intact cerebellar cortex. Both ablative lesions of the cerebellar cortex and inactivation of cerebellar cortex output with picrotoxin block the acquisition of short-latency responses. However, once the short-latency responses are acquired neither disconnection of cerebellar cortex nor inactivation of the cerebellar nucleus block reacquisition. The results are consistent with the proposal that plasticity in the cerebellar cortex is necessary for learning the timing of conditioned responses, plasticity in the interpositus nucleus mediates the short latency responses, and cerebellar cortical output and mossy fiber input are necessary for the acquisition of short latency responses. ^