Assessment of energy efficiency in electric storage water heaters

Nowadays there are several ways of supplying hot water for showers in residential buildings. One of them is the use of electric storage water heaters (boilers). This equipment raises the water temperature in a reservoir (tank) using the heat generated by an electric resistance. The behavior of this equipment in Brazil is still a research object and there is not a standard in the country to regulate its efficiency. In this context, an experimental program was conducted aiming to collect power consumption data to evaluate its performance. The boilers underwent an operation cycle to simulate a usage condition aiming to collect parameters for calculating the efficiency. This 1-day cycle was composed of the following phases: hot water withdrawal, reheating and standby heat loss. The methods allowed the identification of different parameters concerning the boilers work, such as: standby heat loss in 24 h, hot water withdrawal rate, reheating time and energy efficiency. The average energy efficiency obtained was of 75%. The lowest efficiency was of 62% for boiler 2 and the highest was of 85% for boiler 9. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Estudo de aplicação de coletores solares na produção de eletricidade e calor para uso doméstico

O trabalho apresentado explora o aproveitamento da energia solar para suprir as necessidades energéticas, tanto elétricas como térmicas, de uma habitação tipo 3, recorrendo ao uso de coletores solares, em que o fluido de trabalho é água. As necessidades elétricas serão supridas através da produção de energia com recurso a um ciclo de Rankine, em que fluido de trabalho é um frigorigénio aquecido através de um permutador cujo fluido quente será uma mistura, de água com anticongelante, aquecida pelo coletor solar. Por outro lado, as necessidades térmicas serão satisfeitas através do calor libertado no ciclo de Rankine. Na instalação solar estará integrado um acumulador térmico com apoio energético, caldeira elétrica, que funcionará nas situações em que coletor seja insuficiente para satisfazer as necessidades térmicas. No final será feita uma avaliação económica para que possa atestar a viabilidade económica do projeto, tendo em conta os seus custos totais versus as poupanças energéticas que este sistema origina.

Evaluación de un sistema de energía solar térmica basado en colectores de tubos de vacío para suministro de agua a alta temperatura

Esta tesis pretende contribuir al fomento y utilización de la energía solar como alternativa para la producción de agua caliente en el sector agroindustrial. La demanda de agua caliente es un aspecto clave en un gran número de agroindustrias y explotaciones agrarias. Esta demanda presenta una gran variabilidad, tanto en los horarios en que se solicita como en la temperatura del agua del depósito requerida (TADr), difiriendo del perfil de demanda habitual para uso doméstico. Existe una necesidad de profundizar en la influencia que tiene la variación de la TADr en la eficiencia y viabilidad de estos sistemas. El objetivo principal de esta tesis es caracterizar el funcionamiento de un sistema solar térmico (SST) con captador de tubos de vacío (CTV) para producir agua a temperaturas superiores a las habituales en estos sistemas. Se pretende determinar la influencia que la TADr tiene sobre la eficiencia energética del sistema, cuantificar el volumen de agua caliente que es capaz de suministrar en función de la TADr y determinar la rentabilidad del SST como sistema complementario de suministro. Para ello, se ha diseñado, instalado y puesto a punto un sistema experimental de calentamiento de agua, monitorizando su funcionamiento a diferentes TADr bajo condiciones ambientales reales. Los resultados cuantifican cómo el aumento de la TADr provoca una disminución de la energía suministrada al depósito, pudiendo superar diferencias de 1000 Wh m-2 d-1 entre 40 ºC y 80 ºC, para valores de irradiación solar próximos a 8000 Wh m-2 d-1 (la eficiencia del sistema oscila entre 73% y 56%). Esta reducción es consecuencia de la disminución de la eficiencia del captador y del aumento de las pérdidas de calor en las tuberías del circuito. En cuanto al agua suministrada, cuanto mayor es la TADr, mayor es la irradiación solar requerida para que tenga lugar la primera descarga de agua, aumentando el tiempo entre descargas y disminuyendo el número de éstas a lo largo del día. A medida que se incrementa la TADr, se produce una reducción del volumen de agua suministrado a la TADr, por factores como la pérdida de eficiencia del captador, las pérdidas en las tuberías, la energía acumulada en el agua que no alcanza la TADr y la mayor energía extraída del sistema en el agua producida. Para una TADr de 80 ºC, una parte importante de la energía permanece acumulada en el depósito sin alcanzar la TADr al final del día. Para aprovechar esta energía sería necesario disponer de un sistema complementario de suministro, ya que las pérdidas de calor nocturnas en el depósito pueden reducir considerablemente la energía útil disponible al día siguiente. La utilización del sistema solar como sistema único de suministro es inviable en la mayoría de los casos, especialmente a TADr elevadas, al no ajustarse la demanda de agua caliente a la estacionalidad de la producción del sistema solar, y al existir muchos días sin producción de agua caliente por la ausencia de irradiación mínima. Por el contrario, la inversión del sistema solar como sistema complementario para suministrar parte de la demanda térmica de una instalación es altamente recomendable. La energía útil anual del sistema solar estimada oscila entre 1322 kWh m-2 y 1084 kWh m-2. La mayor rentabilidad se obtendría suponiendo la existencia de una caldera eléctrica, donde la inversión se recuperaría en pocos años -entre 5.7 años a 40 ºC y 7.2 años a 80 ºC -. La rentabilidad también es elevada suponiendo la existencia de una caldera de gasóleo, con periodos de recuperación inferiores a 10 años. En una industria ficticia con demanda de 100 kWh d-1 y caldera de gasóleo existente, la inversión en una instalación solar optimizada sería rentable a cualquier TADr, con valores de VAN cercanos a la inversión realizada -12000 € a 80 ºC y 15000€ a 40 ºC- y un plazo de recuperación de la inversión entre 8 y 10 años. Los resultados de este estudio pueden ser de gran utilidad a la hora de determinar la viabilidad de utilización de sistemas similares para suministrar la demanda de agua caliente de agroindustrias y explotaciones agropecuarias, o para otras aplicaciones en las que se demande agua a temperaturas distintas de la habitual en uso doméstico (60 ºC). En cada caso, los rendimientos y la rentabilidad vendrán determinados por la irradiación de la zona, la temperatura del agua requerida y la curva de demanda de los procesos específicos. ABSTRACT The aim of this thesis is to contribute to the development and use of solar energy as an alternative for producing hot water in the agribusiness sector. Hot water supply is a key issue for a great many agribusinesses and agricultural holdings. Both hot water demand times and required tank water temperature (rTWT) are highly variable, where the demand profile tends to differ from domestic use. Further research is needed on how differences in rTWT influence the performance and feasibility of these systems. The main objective of this thesis is to characterize the performance and test the feasibility of an evacuated tube collector (ETC) solar water heating (SWH) system providing water at a higher temperature than is usual for such systems. The aim is to determine what influence the rTWT has on the system’s energy efficiency, quantify the volume of hot water that the system is capable of supplying at the respective rTWT and establish whether SWH is feasible as a booster supply system for the different analysed rTWTs. To do this, a prototype water heating system has been designed, installed and commissioned and its performance monitored at different rTWTs under real operating conditions. The quantitative results show that a higher rTWT results in a lower energy supply to the tank, where the differences may be greater than 1000 Wh m-2 d-1 from 40 ºC to 80 ºC for insolation values of around 8000 Wh m-2 d-1 (system efficiency ranges from 73% to 56%). The drop in supply is due to lower collector efficiency and greater heat losses from the pipe system. As regards water supplied at the rTWT, the insolation required for the first withdrawal of water to take place is greater at higher rTWTs, where the time between withdrawals increases and the number of withdrawals decreases throughout the day. As rTWT increases, the volume of water supplied at the rTWT decreases due to factors such as lower collector efficiency, pipe system heat losses, energy stored in the water at below the rTWT and more energy being extracted from the system by water heating. For a rTWT of 80 ºC, much of the energy is stored in the tank at below the rTWT at the end of the day. A booster supply system would be required to take advantage of this energy, as overnight tank heat losses may significantly reduce the usable energy available on the following day. It is often not feasible to use the solar system as a single supply system, especially at high rTWTs, as, unlike the supply from the solar heating system which does not produce hot water on many days of the year because insolation is below the required minimum, hot water demand is not seasonal. On the other hand, investment in a solar system as a booster system to meet part of a plant’s heat energy demand is highly recommended. The solar system’s estimated annual usable energy ranges from 1322 kWh m-2 to 1084 kWh m-2. Cost efficiency would be greatest if there were an existing electric boiler, where the payback period would be just a few years —from 5.7 years at 40 ºC to 7.2 years at 80 ºC—. Cost efficiency is also high if there is an existing diesel boiler with payback periods of under 10 years. In a fictitious industry with a demand of 100 kWh day-1 and an existing diesel boiler, the investment in the solar plant would be highly recommended at any rTWT, with a net present value similar to investment costs —12000 € at 80 ºC and 15000 € at 40 ºC— and a payback period of 10 years. The results of this study are potentially very useful for determining the feasibility of using similar systems for meeting the hot water demand of agribusinesses and arable and livestock farms or for other applications demanding water at temperatures not typical of domestic demand (60ºC). Performance and cost efficiency will be determined by the regional insolation, the required water temperature and the demand curve of the specific processes in each case.

Test and evaluation period of 120,000 pph atmospheric fluidized bed combustion boiler with 3,500 kw cogenerated electric power /

"ILENR/CD-87/02."

Boiler and turbine room instruments; serial report of the Prime Movers Committee (1925-1926)

Mode of access: Internet.

Cytogenetic characterization of the strongly electric Amazonian eel, Electrophorus electricus (Teleostei, Gymnotiformes), from the Brazilian rivers Amazon and Araguaia

A karyotype analysis of the electric eel, Electrophorus electricus (Teleostei, Gymnotiformes), a strongly electric fish from northern South America, is presented. Two female specimens were analyzed, one from the Amazon River and one from the Araguaia River. The specimens had a chromosomal number of 2n = 52 (42M-SM + 10A). C-bands were present in a centromeric and pericentromeric position on part of the chromosomes; some interstitial C-bands were also present. Heteromorphic nucleolus organizer regions (NORs) were detected in two chromosome pairs of the specimen from the Amazon River. The chromosome number and karyotype characteristics are similar to those of other Gymnotidae species. The genera Electrophorus and Gymnotus are positioned as the basal lineages in the Gymnotiformes phylogeny.

Stress at work among electric utility workers

In the last decades there was an increase in stress at work and its effects on workers' health. These issues are still little studied in the electric utility sector. This study aims to evaluate factors associated with stress at work and to verify its associations with health status among workers of an electric company in São Paulo State, Brazil. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 474 subjects (87.5% of the eligible workers). Data were collected using self-reported questionnaires. A descriptive analysis, a multiple linear hierarchical regression analysis and a correlation analysis were performed. The majority of participants were males (91.1%) and the mean age was 37.5 yr. The mean score of stress level was 2.3 points (scale ranging from 1.0 to 5.0). Hierarchical multiple analyses showed that: regular practice of physical activities (p=0.025) and individual monthly income (p=0.002) were inversely associated with stress level; BMI was marginally associated with the stress level (p=0.074). The demographic characteristics were not associated with stress. Stress at work was significantly associated with physical and mental health status (p<0.001). To improve health of electric utility workers, actions are suggested to decrease stress by remuneration and an appropriate practice of physical activity aiming reduction of BMI

Biomass Refinery as a Renewable Complement to the Petroleum Refinery

Biomass Refinery is a sequential of eleven thermochemical processes and one biological process with two initial basic treatments: prehydrolysis for lignocellulosics and low temperature conversion for biomass with medium-to-high content of lipids and proteins. The other ten processes are: effluent treatment plant, furfural plant, biodiesel plant, cellulignin dryer, calcination, fluidized bed boiler, authotermal reforming of cellulignin for syngas production, combined cycle of two-stroke low-speed engine or syngas turbine with fluidized bed boiler heat recovery, GTL technologies and ethanol from cellulose, prehydrolysate and syngas. Any kind of biomass such as wood, agricultural residues, municipal solid waste, seeds, cakes, sludges, excrements and used tires can be processed at the Biomass Refinery. Twelve basic products are generated such as cellulignin, animal feed, electric energy, fuels (ethanol, crude oil, biodiesel, char), petrochemical substitutes, some materials (ash, gypsum, fertilizers, silica, carbon black) and hydrogen. The technology is clean with recovery of energy and reuse of water, acid and effluents. Based on a holistic integration of various disciplines Biomass Refinery maximizes the simultaneous production of food, electric energy, liquid fuels and chemical products and some materials, achieving a competitive position with conventional and fossil fuel technologies, as well as payment capacity for biomass production. Biomass Refinery has a technical economical capability to complement the depletion of the conventional petroleum sources and to capture its GHGs resulting a biomass + petroleum ""green"" combination.

Influence of metallic nanoparticles on electric-dipole and magnetic-dipole transitions of Eu(3+) doped germanate glasses

Luminescence properties of Eu(3+) doped germanate glasses containing either silver or gold nanoparticles (NPs) were investigated for excitation at 405 nm. Enhanced emissions and luminescence quenching of the Eu(3+) transitions in the range from 570 to 720 nm were observed for samples having various concentrations of metallic NPs. Electric-dipole and magnetic-dipole transitions that originate from the Eu(3+) level (5)D(0) exhibit large enhancement due to the presence of the metallic NPs. The results suggest that the magnetic response of rare-earth doped metal-dielectric composites at optical frequencies can be as strong as their electric response due to the confinement of the optical magnetic field. (C) 2010 American Institute of Physics. [doi:10.1063/1.3431347]

Stress at Work among Electric Utility Workers

In the last decades there was an increase in stress at work and its effects on workers' health. These issues are still little studied in the electric utility sector. This study aims to evaluate factors associated with stress at work and to verify its associations with health status among workers of an electric company in Sao Paulo State, Brazil. A cross-sectional study was conducted with 474 subjects (87.5% of the eligible workers). Data were collected using self-reported questionnaires. A descriptive analysis, a multiple linear hierarchical regression analysis and a correlation analysis were performed. The majority of participants were males (91.1%) and the mean age was 37.5 yr. The mean score of stress level was 2.3 points (scale ranging from 1.0 to 5.0). Hierarchical multiple analyses showed that: regular practice of physical activities (p=0.025) and individual monthly income (p=0.002) were inversely associated with stress level; BMI was marginally associated with the stress level (p=0.074). The demographic characteristics were not associated with stress. Stress at work was significantly associated with physical and mental health status (p<0.001). To improve health of electric utility workers, actions are suggested to decrease stress by remuneration and an appropriate practice of physical activity aiming reduction of BMI.

Consistency restrictions on maximal electric-field strength in quantum field theory

Quantum field theory with an external background can be considered as a consistent model only if backreaction is relatively small with respect to the background. To find the corresponding consistency restrictions on an external electric field and its duration in QED and QCD, we analyze the mean-energy density of quantized fields for an arbitrary constant electric field E, acting during a large but finite time T. Using the corresponding asymptotics with respect to the dimensionless parameter eET(2), one can see that the leading contributions to the energy are due to the creation of particles by the electric field. Assuming that these contributions are small in comparison with the energy density of the electric background, we establish the above-mentioned restrictions, which determine, in fact, the time scales from above of depletion of an electric field due to the backreaction.

Aharonov-Bohm Interference in Neutral Excitons: Effects of Built-In Electric Fields

We report a comprehensive discussion of quantum interference effects due to the finite structure of neutral excitons in quantum rings and their first experimental corroboration observed in the optical recombinations. The signatures of built-in electric fields and temperature on quantum interference are demonstrated by theoretical models that describe the modulation of the interference pattern and confirmed by complementary experimental procedures.

Electric Field Effects in the Excitation of Cold Rydberg-Atom Pairs

In this work, we study the role of the ac Stark effects on the excitation of nS(1/2) cold Rydberg atoms produced in a rubidium magneto-optical trap. We have observed an atomic population in the nP(3/2) state after excitation of nS(1/2) for 29 <= n <= 37. Such an observation is normally attributed to binary collisions; however, the interaction between Rb nS(1/2) atoms is repulsive. To explain our results, the dipole-dipole interaction and ac Stark shifts from the excitation laser must be considered. We find that the Rydberg-atom-pair state asymptotically correlating to nP(3/2)+(n-1)P(3/2) is excited directly.

IS ORDINARY ELECTRIC DRILLS` VENTING PORT A POTENTIAL SOURCE OF SURGICAL INFECTION?

Objective: To evaluate the potential risk of surgical contamination by the venting port of ordinary electric drills (ED) employed in orthopaedic surgeries. Materials and Methods: an experimental laboratory, randomized study was developed to analyze EDs in surgical practice and new cleaned and sterilized equipment, which were contaminated with Bacillus atrophaeus spores at a concentration of 84 X 10(6) UFC. The air generated by the engine of each drill was collected and cultivated on sterile agar plates. Results: Positive culture was identified in two ED in surgical practice, as well as a positive culture to Bacillus atrophaeus with 1 CFU growth (1, 19 X 10(-8)). Conclusion: In the conditions of the experiment, the air generated by the venting port of the ED`s engine does not consist of a source of contamination for the surgical site.

GOOAL: A routine based on Genetic Algorithms to track harmonics in electric power systems

Voltage and current waveforms of a distribution or transmission power system are not pure sinusoids. There are distortions in these waveforms that can be represented as a combination of the fundamental frequency, harmonics and high frequency transients. This paper presents a novel approach to identifying harmonics in power system distorted waveforms. The proposed method is based on Genetic Algorithms, which is an optimization technique inspired by genetics and natural evolution. GOOAL, a specially designed intelligent algorithm for optimization problems, was successfully implemented and tested. Two kinds of representations concerning chromosomes are utilized: binary and real. The results show that the proposed method is more precise than the traditional Fourier Transform, especially considering the real representation of the chromosomes.