Analysing the contribution of ATM/ATR pathway activation in establishing the premature senescence of E2F1/E2F2-/- bone-marrow-derived macrophages

E2F1 and E2F2 transcription factors have an important role during the regulation of cell cycle. In experiments done with E2F1/E2F2 knockout mice, it has been described that bone-marrow-derived macrophages (BMDM) undergo an early rapid proliferation event related to DNA hyper-replication. As a consequence, DNA damage response (DDR) pathway is triggered and E2F1/E2F2 knockout macrophages enter premature senescence related to G2/M phase arrest. The exact mechanism trough which DNA hyper-replication leads to DDR in absence of E2F1 and E2F2 remains undiscovered. To determine whether the ATR/ATM pathway, the master regulator of G2/M checkpoint, might be the surveillance mechanism in order to regulate uncontrolled proliferation in the DKO model, we monitored and analysis biochemical properties of BMDM cultures in the presence of caffeine, a potent inhibitor of ATM/ATR activity. Our results show that the addition of caffeine abolishes premature senescence in DKO BMDM, stimulates γ-H2AX accumulation and decreases Mcm2 expression.

Mechanisms of E2F2-mediated transcriptional repression

In this work we wanted to study the mechanism of E2F2-mediated repression. Our hypothesis is that E2F2 activates the expression of one or more E2F members of the “repressor” subset of the family through the E2F motifs present in their promoters, and those repressor E2F(s) would subsequently repress the target promoters. To address this hypothesis, we focused on E2F7. E2F7 is a repressor that lacks the Rb binding domain, and associates with DNA through E2F binding sites (de Bruin et al., 2003). Furthermore, E2F7 itself is also regulated by E2F motifs on its own promoter, and it has been shown to repress DNA metabolism and replication genes in late S-phase (de Bruin et al., 2003; Westendorp et al., 2012). E2F7, together with E2F8 has been found to form heterodimers, being critical on cell proliferation and development, and both seem to have similar functions (Li et al., 2008). Preliminary results from Zubiaga’s group have indicated that E2F2 activates E2F7 transcription in U2OS cells, suggesting that E2F2’s repressor function could be mediated by E2F7. For this purpose, we focused on studying E2F7’s role on the target genes previously known to be repressed by E2F2: Chk1 and Mcm5. The specific aims for this work were the following: - Confirm that E2F2 induces E2F7 in HEK-293T cells - Assess whether E2F7 acts as a transcriptional repressor on E2F sites - Evaluate the role of E2F7 on E2F2-mediated transcriptional repression of Chk1 and Mcm5.

Nukleosidoen gehikuntzaren eragina estres erreplikatiboan eta seneszentzia zelularrean: E2F1-/-/E2F2-/- makrofagoen kasua

E2F1 eta E2F2 transkripzio-faktoreek funtzio garrantzitsua dute ziklo zelularraren errgulazioan. Sagu knockout-etan eginiko saioetan deskribatu da E2F1 eta E2F2 geneen absentzian DNAren bikoizketa-tasa emendatuta dagoela makrofagoetan, eta ondorioz seneszentzia goiztiarra aktibatuta dagoela zelula hauetan. Seneszentzia horren mekanismoak ez dira ezagutzen, baina uste da DNAren estres erreplikatiboaren eraginez gertatzen dela. Oraintsu argitaratutako lan batzuren arabera, onkogeneek eragindako desegonkortasun genomikoa nukleosido mailaren urritasunagatik sortzen dela proposatu da. Emaitza hauek kontutan harturik, E2F1-/-/E2F2-/- (DKO) makrofagoen kultiboei nukleosidoak gehitu dizkiet exogenoki, eta zelula hauen proliferazioaren jarraipena egin dut. Nukleosidoekin trataturiko kultiboetan DNAren kalteen jaitsiera eta seneszenziaren saihespena detektatu ditut. Emaitza hauek zera iradokitzen dute, DKO zeluletako seneszentzia goiztiarraren arrazoia DNAren hiper-erreplikazioak sortutako nukleosidoen urritasuna izan daitekeela.

Papel de E2F1 y E2F2 en la instauración de esteatosis inducida por dieta rica en grasa

Los factores de transcripción E2F son cruciales en la transición G1/S del ciclo celular. El factor de transcripción E2F1 regula el metabolismo oxidativo y su falta genera resistencia a obesidad. Se desconoce si E2F1 y E2F2 están implicados en la regulación de la homeostasis metabólica hepática. Por ello, el objetivo fue investigar el papel de E2F1 y E2F2 en la modulación del metabolismo lipídico hepático y su repercusión a nivel orgánico. Se utilizaron ratones macho de 3 meses E2F1-/-, E2F2-/- y sus controles que serán alimentados con dieta control o rica en grasa (HFD) durante 10 semanas. Se analizaron parámetros séricos en estado de alimento y tras 13 horas de ayuno. Se investigaron in vivo los flujos metabólicos hepáticos implicados en la disponibilidad de fosfolípidos, diglicéridos y triglicéridos (TG) tras administración de sustratos radiactivos.

The E2F2 Transcription Factor Sustains Hepatic Glycerophospholipid Homeostasis in Mice

Increasing evidence links metabolic signals to cell proliferation, but the molecular wiring that connects the two core machineries remains largely unknown. E2Fs are master regulators of cellular proliferation. We have recently shown that E2F2 activity facilitates the completion of liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy (PH) by regulating the expression of genes required for S-phase entry. Our study also revealed that E2F2 determines the duration of hepatectomy-induced hepatic steatosis. A transcriptomic analysis of normal adult liver identified "lipid metabolism regulation" as a major E2F2 functional target, suggesting that E2F2 has a role in lipid homeostasis. Here we use wild-type (E2F2(+/+)) and E2F2 deficient (E2F2(-/-)) mice to investigate the in vivo role of E2F2 in the composition of liver lipids and fatty acids in two metabolically different contexts: quiescence and 48-h post-PH, when cellular proliferation and anabolic demands are maximal. We show that liver regeneration is accompanied by large triglyceride and protein increases without changes in total phospholipids both in E2F2(+/+) and E2F2(-/-) mice. Remarkably, we found that the phenotype of quiescent liver tissue from E2F2(-/-) mice resembles the phenotype of proliferating E2F2(+/+) liver tissue, characterized by a decreased phosphatidylcholine to phosphatidylethanolamine ratio and a reprogramming of genes involved in generation of choline and ethanolamine derivatives. The diversity of fatty acids in total lipid, triglycerides and phospholipids was essentially preserved on E2F2 loss both in proliferating and non-proliferating liver tissue, although notable exceptions in inflammation-related fatty acids of defined phospholipid classes were detected. Overall, our results indicate that E2F2 activity sustains the hepatic homeostasis of major membrane glycerolipid components while it is dispensable for storage glycerolipid balance.

Exploring Genetic Factors Involved in Huntington Disease Age of Onset: E2F2 as a New Potential Modifier Gene

Age of onset (AO) of Huntington disease (HD) is mainly determined by the length of the CAG repeat expansion (CAGexp) in exon 1 of the HTT gene. Additional genetic variation has been suggested to contribute to AO, although the mechanism by which it could affect AO is presently unknown. The aim of this study is to explore the contribution of candidate genetic factors to HD AO in order to gain insight into the pathogenic mechanisms underlying this disorder. For that purpose, two AO definitions were used: the earliest age with unequivocal signs of HD (earliest AO or eAO), and the first motor symptoms age (motor AO or mAO). Multiple linear regression analyses were performed between genetic variation within 20 candidate genes and eAO or mAO, using DNA and clinical information of 253 HD patients from REGISTRY project. Gene expression analyses were carried out by RT-qPCR with an independent sample of 35 HD patients from Basque Country Hospitals. We found suggestive association signals between HD eAO and/or mAO and genetic variation within the E2F2, ATF7IP, GRIN2A, GRIN2B, LINC01559, HIP1 and GRIK2 genes. Among them, the most significant was the association between eAO and rs2742976, mapping to the promoter region of E2F2 transcription factor. Furthermore, rs2742976 T allele patient carriers exhibited significantly lower lymphocyte E2F2 gene expression, suggesting a possible implication of E2F2-dependent transcriptional activity in HD pathogenesis. Thus, E2F2 emerges as a new potential HD AO modifier factor.

Histone deacetylase 7 controls endothelial cell growth through modulation of beta-catenin

Rationale: Histone deacetylase (HDAC)7 is expressed in the early stages of embryonic development and may play a role in endothelial function.

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the role of HDAC7 in endothelial cell (EC) proliferation and growth and the underlying mechanism.

Methods and Results: Overexpression of HDAC7 by adenoviral gene transfer suppressed human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) proliferation by preventing nuclear translocation of ß-catenin and downregulation of T-cell factor-1/Id2 (inhibitor of DNA binding 2) and cyclin D1, leading to G1 phase elongation. Further assays with the TOPFLASH reporter and quantitative RT-PCR for other ß-catenin target genes such as Axin2 confirmed that overexpression of HDAC7 decreased ß-catenin activity. Knockdown of HDAC7 by lentiviral short hairpin RNA transfer induced ß-catenin nuclear translocation but downregulated cyclin D1, cyclin E1 and E2F2, causing HUVEC hypertrophy. Immunoprecipitation assay and mass spectrometry analysis revealed that HDAC7 directly binds to ß-catenin and forms a complex with 14-3-3 e, ?, and ? proteins. Vascular endothelial growth factor treatment induced HDAC7 degradation via PLC?-IP3K (phospholipase C?–inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate kinase) signal pathway and partially rescued HDAC7-mediated suppression of proliferation. Moreover, vascular endothelial growth factor stimulation suppressed the binding of HDAC7 with ß-catenin, disrupting the complex and releasing ß-catenin to translocate into the nucleus.

Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that HDAC7 interacts with ß-catenin keeping ECs in a low proliferation stage and provides a novel insight into the mechanism of HDAC7-mediated signal pathways leading to endothelial growth

Vascular Endothelial Cell Growth–Activated XBP1 Splicing in Endothelial Cells Is Crucial for Angiogenesis

BACKGROUND - : Vascular endothelial cell growth factor plays a pivotal role in angiogenesis via regulating endothelial cell proliferation. The X-box binding protein 1 (XBP1) is believed to be a signal transducer in the endoplasmic reticulum stress response. It is unknown whether there is crosstalk between vascular endothelial cell growth factor signaling and XBP1 pathway. 

METHODS AND RESULTS - : We found that vascular endothelial cell growth factor induced the kinase insert domain receptor internalization and interaction through C-terminal domain with the unspliced XBP1 and the inositol requiring enzyme 1 α in the endoplasmic reticulum, leading to inositol requiring enzyme 1 α phosphorylation and XBP1 mRNA splicing, which was abolished by siRNA-mediated knockdown of kinase insert domain receptor. Spliced XBP1 regulated endothelial cell proliferation in a PI3K/Akt/GSK3β/β- catenin/E2F2-dependent manner and modulated the cell size increase in a PI3K/Akt/GSK3β/β-catenin/E2F2-independent manner. Knockdown of XBP1 or inositol requiring enzyme 1 α decreased endothelial cell proliferation via suppression of Akt/GSK3β phosphorylation, β-catenin nuclear translocation, and E2F2 expression. Endothelial cell-specific knockout of XBP1 (XBP1ecko) in mice retarded the retinal vasculogenesis in the first 2 postnatal weeks and impaired the angiogenesis triggered by ischemia. Reconstitution of XBP1 by Ad-XBP1s gene transfer significantly improved angiogenesis in ischemic tissue in XBP1ecko mice. Transplantation of bone marrow from wild-type o XBP1ecko mice could also slightly improve the foot blood reperfusion in ischemic XBP1ecko mice. 

CONCLUSIONS - : These results suggest that XBP1 can function via growth factor signaling pathways to regulate endothelial proliferation and angiogenesis. 

On the transition to agriculture.

Malone, C.A.T. and S.K.F. Stoddart, Current Anthropology, 1992. 33(5): p. 594-5.

Conception de microARNs pour attenuer l'expression de genes

Les microARNs appartiennent à la famille des petits ARNs non-codants et agissent comme inhibiteurs des ARN messagers et/ou de leurs produits protéiques. Les mi- croARNs sont différents des petits ARNs interférants (siARN) car ils atténuent l’ex- pression au lieu de l’éliminer. Dans les dernières années, de nombreux microARNs et leurs cibles ont été découverts chez les mammifères et les plantes. La bioinforma- tique joue un rôle important dans ce domaine, et des programmes informatiques de découvertes de cibles ont été mis à la disposition de la communauté scientifique. Les microARNs peuvent réguler chacun des centaines de gènes, et les profils d’expression de ces derniers peuvent servir comme classificateurs de certains cancers. La modélisation des microARNs artificiels est donc justifiable, où l’un pourrait cibler des oncogènes surexprimés et promouvoir une prolifération de cellules en santé. Un outil pour créer des microARNs artificiels, nommé MultiTar V1.0, a été créé et est disponible comme application web. L’outil se base sur des propriétés structurelles et biochimiques des microARNs et utilise la recherche tabou, une métaheuristique. Il est démontré que des microARNs conçus in-silico peuvent avoir des effets lorsque testés in-vitro. Les sé- quences 3’UTR des gènes E2F1, E2F2 et E2F3 ont été soumises en entrée au programme MultiTar, et les microARNs prédits ont ensuite été testés avec des essais luciférases, des western blots et des courbes de croissance cellulaire. Au moins un microARN artificiel est capable de réguler les trois gènes par essais luciférases, et chacun des microARNs a pu réguler l’expression de E2F1 et E2F2 dans les western blots. Les courbes de crois- sance démontrent que chacun des microARNs interfère avec la croissance cellulaire. Ces résultats ouvrent de nouvelles portes vers des possibilités thérapeutiques.

Conception de miARN artificiels basée sur la caractérisation de la boucle de régulation miR-20/E2F

La biologie moléculaire et, plus spécifiquement, la régulation de l’expression génique ont été révolutionnées par la découverte des microARN (miARN). Ces petits ARN d’une vingtaine de nucléotides sont impliqués dans la majorité des processus cellulaires et leur expression est dérégulée dans plusieurs maladies, comme le cancer. Un miARN reconnaît ses cibles principalement par son noyau, ce qui lui permet de réguler simultanément la traduction de centaines d’ARN messagers. Nos travaux ont montré l’existence d’une boucle de rétro-activation négative, entre deux miARN du polycistron miR-17-92 et trois facteurs de transcription de la famille E2F. E2F1, 2 et 3 induisent la transcription de miR-20 et miR-17 qui par la suite inhibent leur traduction. Nos résultats suggèrent l’implication de cette boucle dans la résistance à l’apoptose induite par E2F1 dans les cellules du cancer de la prostate, ce qui expliquerait en partie le potentiel oncogénique du polycistron miR-17-92. L’étude de ce motif de régulation nous a donc permis de réaliser le potentiel incroyable qu’ont les miARN à inhiber la traduction de plusieurs gènes. Basé sur les règles de reconnaissance des miARN, nous avons développé et validé MultiTar. Cet outil bioinformatique permet de trouver la séquence d’un miARN artificiel ayant le potentiel d’inhiber la traduction de gènes d’intérêts choisis par l’utilisateur. Afin de valider MultiTar, nous avons généré des multitargets pouvant inhiber l’expression des trois E2F, ce qui nous a permis de comparer leur efficacité à celle de miR-20. Nos miARN artificiels ont la capacité d’inhiber la traduction des E2F et de neutraliser leur fonction redondante de la progression du cycle cellulaire de façon similaire ou supérieur à miR-20. La fonctionnalité de notre programme, ouvre la voie à une stratégie flexible pouvant cibler le caractère multigénique de différents processus cellulaires ou maladies complexes, tel que le cancer. L’utilisation de miARN artificiels pourrait donc représenter une alternative intéressante aux stratégies déjà existantes, qui sont limitées à inhiber des cibles uniques. En plus d’élucider un réseau de régulation complexe impliquant les miARN, nous avons pu tirer profit de leur potentiel d’inhibition par la conception de miARN artificiels.

UNE 166002:2006: estandarizar y sistematizar la I+D+I: la norma y la importancia de las TIC en su implementación

En este artículo se analiza uno de los primeros estándares para la gestión de la I+D+I a nivel mundial, como es la norma UNE 166002:2006. De esta forma, después de describir brevemente los objetivos de las normas que forman parte de la misma familia de la del objeto de estudio, se analiza la importancia de las Tecnologías de la Información y de la Comunicación (TIC) para una implantación exitosa, sistematizando algunas de las actividades clave del proceso de innovación: vigilancia tecnológica, creatividad, gestión del conocimiento y previsión tecnológica

Using K5 Myc transgenic mice to delineate *Myc's apoptotic and tumorigenic pathways

The c-myc oncogene has the unusual ability to induce proliferation and apoptosis. Transgenic mice have been generated in which the expression of Myc is under the control of an epithelial-specific keratin 5 (K5) promoter. These mice have increased levels of proliferation and p53-dependent apoptosis, and are predisposed to developing spontaneous tumors in epithelial tissues. In this study, various knockout mice were bred to K5 Myc transgenic mice to identify factors involved in the aberrant apoptosis, hyperproliferation, and spontaneous tumorigenesis present in these mice. Consistent with in vitro studies, Myc-induced, p53-dependent apoptosis in transgenic epidermis was found to be partially dependent on p19ARF, a p53 regulator that inhibits mdm2. Additionally, the rate of tumorigenesis was increased when p19ARF was absent in Myc transgenic mice. Consistent with previous reports that some E2F family members may function as tumor suppressors, inactivation of either E2f1 or E2f2 was found to accelerate tumor development in the K5 Myc transgenic mice. Acceleration of tumorigenesis in the absence of E2F1 occurred despite the fact that apoptotic levels were increased in transgenic tissue and tumors null for E2f1 , whereas hyperproliferation was unaffected. In contrast, inactivation of E2f2 was found to increase hyperproliferation in the K5 Myc transgenic mice, while having no effect on apoptosis. The lack of E2f1 in the Myc transgenic mice increased the expression of several p53 transcription target genes, which may explain the increased apoptosis in these mice. In transgenic epidermis, p53 is phosphorylated at serine 18, a site of phosphorylation by ATM. Inactivation of ATM in K5 Myc transgenic mice impaired Myc-induced apoptosis, identifying ATM as having an important role in Myc-induced apoptosis. Moreover, the absence of ATM accelerates tumorigenesis in K5-expressing tissues. However, p53 accumulation and phosphorylation at serine 18 induced by Myc occurs independent of ATM. Therefore, another activity of ATM appears to be important for Myc-induced apoptosis. These findings show that acceleration of tumorigenesis in K5 Myc transgenic mice, as in the case of p53, p19ARF, E2F1, E2F2, and ATM absence, does not necessarily correlate with suppression of Myc-induced apoptosis, as seen only when p53, p19ARF or ATM was absent. ^

Distinct roles for E2F proteins in cell growth control and apoptosis

E2F transcription activity is composed of a family of heterodimers encoded by distinct genes. Through the overproduction of each of the five known E2F proteins in mammalian cells, we demonstrate that a large number of genes encoding proteins important for cell cycle regulation and DNA replication can be activated by the E2F proteins and that there are distinct specificities in the activation of these genes by individual E2F family members. Coexpression of each E2F protein with the DP1 heterodimeric partner does not significantly alter this specificity. We also find that only E2F1 overexpression induces cells to undergo apoptosis, despite the fact that at least two other E2F family members, E2F2 and E2F3, are equally capable of inducing S phase. The ability of E2F1 to induce apoptosis appears to result from the specific induction of an apoptosis-promoting activity rather than the lack of induction of a survival activity, because co-expression of E2F2 and E2F3 does not rescue cells from E2F1-mediated apoptosis. We conclude that E2F family members play distinct roles in cell cycle control and that E2F1 may function as a specific signal for the initiation of an apoptosis pathway that must normally be blocked for a productive proliferation event.