Effects of selective bile duct ligation on liver parenchyma in young animals: histologic and molecular evaluations

Background/Purpose: The mechanisms of increased collagen production and liver parenchyma fibrosis are poorly understood. These phenomena are observed mainly in children with biliary obstruction (BO), and in a great number of patients, the evolution to biliary cirrhosis and hepatic failure leads to the need for liver transplantation before adolescence. However, pediatric liver transplantation presents with biliary complications in 20% to 30% of cases in the postoperative period. Intra-or extrahepatic stenosis of bile ducts is frequent and may lead to secondary biliary cirrhosis and the need for retransplantation. It is unknown whether biliary stenosis involving isolated segments or lobes may affect the adjacent nonobstructed lobes by paracrine or endocrine means, leading to fibrosis in this parenchyma. Therefore, the present study aimed to create an experimental model of selective biliary duct ligation in young animals with a subsequent evaluation of the histologic and molecular alterations in liver parenchyma of the obstructed and nonobstructed lobes. Methods: After a pilot study to standardize the surgical procedures, weaning rats underwent ligation of the bile ducts of the median, left lateral, and caudate liver lobes. The bile duct of the right lateral lobe was kept intact. To avoid intrahepatic biliary duct collaterals neoformation, the parenchymal connection between the right lateral and median lobes was clamped. The animals were divided into groups according to the time of death: 1, 2, 3, 4, and 8 weeks after surgical procedure. After death, the median and left lateral lobes (with BO) and the right lateral lobe (without BO [NBO]) were harvested separately. A group of 8 healthy nonoperated on animals served as controls. Liver tissues were subjected to histologic evaluation and quantification of the ductular proliferation and of the portal fibrosis. The expressions of smooth muscle alpha-actin (alpha-SMA), desmin, and transforming growth factor beta 1 genes were studied by molecular analyses (semiquantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and real-time polymerase chain reaction, a quantitative method). Results: Histologic analyses revealed the occurrence of ductular proliferation and collagen formation in the portal spaces of both BO and NBO lobes. These phenomena were observed later in NBO than BO. Bile duct density significantly increased 1 week after duct ligation; it decreased after 2 and 3 weeks and then increased again after 4 and 8 weeks in both BO and NBO lobes. The portal space collagen area increased after 2 weeks in both BO and NBO lobes. After 3 weeks, collagen deposition in BO was even higher, and in NBO, the collagen area started decreasing after 2 weeks. Molecular analyses revealed increased expression of the alpha-SMA gene in both BO and NBO lobes. The semiquantitative and quantitative methods showed concordant results. Conclusions: The ligation of a duct responsible for biliary drainage of the liver lobe promoted alterations in the parenchyma and in the adjacent nonobstructed parenchyma by paracrine and/or endocrine means. This was supported by histologic findings and increased expression of alpha-SMA, a protein related to hepatic fibrogenesis. (C) 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Review of experimental models for inducing hepatic cirrhosis by bile duct ligation and carbon tetrachloride injection

PURPOSE: To present a review about a comparative study of bile duct ligation versus carbon tetrachloride Injection for inducing experimental liver cirrhosis. METHODS: This research was made through Medline/PubMed and SciELO web sites looking for papers on the content "induction of liver cirrhosis in rats". We have found 107 articles but only 30 were selected from 2004 to 2011. RESULTS: The most common methods used for inducing liver cirrhosis in the rat were administration of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) and bile duct ligation (BDL). CCl4 has induced cirrhosis from 36 hours to 18 weeks after injection and BDL from seven days to four weeks after surgery. CONCLUSION: For a safer inducing cirrhosis method BDL is better than CCl4 because of the absence of toxicity for researches and shorter time for achieving it.

Atorvastatin attenuates hepatic fibrosis in rats after bile duct ligation via decreased turnover of hepatic stellate cells

Activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSC) and transdifferentiation to myofibroblasts following liver injury is the main culprit for hepatic fibrosis. Myofibroblasts show increased proliferation, migration, contraction, and production of extracellular matrix (ECM). In vitro, HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) inhibit proliferation and induce apoptosis of myofibroblastic HSC. To investigate the antifibrotic effects of atorvastatin in vivo we used bile duct ligated rats (BDL).

AST-120 (spherical carbon adsorbent) lowers ammonia levels and attenuates brain edema in bile duct-ligated rats

The pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy is multifactorial, involving gut-derived toxins such as ammonia, which has been demonstrated to induce oxidative stress. Therefore, a primary hepatic encephalopathy treatment target is reducing ammonia production in the gastrointestinal tract. AST-120, an oral adsorbent of engineered activated carbon microspheres with surface areas exceeding 1600 m(2) /g, acts as a sink for neurotoxins and hepatotoxins present in the gut. We evaluated the capacity of AST-120 to adsorb ammonia in vitro and to lower blood ammonia, oxidative stress and brain edema in cirrhotic rats. Cirrhosis was induced in rats by bile duct ligation for 6 weeks. AST-120 was administered by gavage preventively for 6 weeks (0.1, 1, and 4 g/kg/day). In addition, AST-120 was evaluated as a short-term treatment for 2 weeks and 3 days (1 g/kg/day) and as a sink to adsorb intravenously infused ammonium acetate. In vitro, AST-120 efficiently adsorbed ammonia. Ammonia levels significantly decreased in a dose-dependent manner for all AST-120-treated bile duct-ligated rats (nontreated: 177.3 ± 30.8 μM; AST-120, 0.1 g/kg/day: 121.9 ± 13.8 μM; AST-120, 1 g/kg/day: 80.9 ± 30.0 μM; AST-120, 4 g/kg/day: 48.8 ± 19.6 μM) and significantly correlated with doses of AST-120 (r = -0.6603). Brain water content and locomotor activity normalized after AST-120 treatments, whereas arterial reactive oxygen species levels remained unchanged. Furthermore, AST-120 significantly attenuated a rise in arterial ammonia after ammonium acetate administration (intravenously). Conclusion:AST-120 treatment decreased arterial ammonia levels, normalized brain water content and locomotor activity but did not demonstrate an effect on systemic oxidative stress. Also, AST-120 acts as an ammonia sink, efficiently removing blood-derived ammonia. Additional studies are warranted to evaluate the effects of AST-120 on hepatic encephalopathy in patients with advanced liver disease. (HEPATOLOGY 2011;).

Changes in bacterial concentration in the liver correlate with that in the hepaticojejunostomy after bile duct reconstruction: implication in the pathogenesis of postoperative cholangitis

Postoperative cholangitis is a frequent and unpredictable complication of unknown etiology following bile duct reconstruction (BDR), particularly for biliary atresia. This study was undertaken to correlate the growth of bacteria in the hepaticojejunostomy with that in the liver after BDR. Quantitative bacterial culture was done on the specimens taken from the liver and from the hepaticojejunostomy at 1 week (group 1, n = 7), 1 month (group 2, n = 7), and 2 months (group 3, n = 7) following BDR with Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy in piglets after 2 weeks of common bile duct ligation. The histological examination of the liver and the hepaticojejunostomy, as well as serial monitoring of hemogram and liver function tests, were performed to correlate the findings with the bacterial concentration of the liver and the hepaticojejunostomy following BDR. The bacterial concentration of the hepaticojejunostomy, expressed as log10 colony-forming units per gram (log10 CFU/g) of the hepaticojejunostomy, showed a progressive decrease from 8.38 ± 1.36 in group 1, 7.07 ± 2.54 in group 2, to 3.56 ± 1.31 in group 3 (p = 0.001). The log10 CFU/g of the liver also showed a progressive decrease from 5.02 ± 1.59 in group 1, 3.16 ± 1.56 in group 2, to 2.19 ± 1.09 in group 3 (p = 0.006). There was a significant positive correlation of the log10 CFU/g of the liver (n = 21) with that of the hepaticojejunostomy (n = 21) following BDR (r = 0.600, p = 0.004). Most of the infectious pathogens isolated from the liver were also isolated from the hepaticojejunostomy. The changes in hemoglobin, bilirubin, albumin, and ammonia significantly correlated with the changes of the bacterial concentration of the liver. The results of the study suggests that hepatic bacterial proliferation after BDR is significantly affected by microbial overgrowth in the bilioenteric anastomosis and is associated with deteriorated liver function and hemogram.

Proposal of a new technique for bile duct reconstruction after iatrogenic injury. Study in dogs and review of the literature

Purpose: Interposition of a jejunal tube between the common bile duct and duodenum. Methods: Five adult mongrel dogs of both sexes, weighing on average 22.3 kg (18 to 26.5 kg), were used. Obstructive jaundice was induced by ligation of the distal common bile duct. After one week, a 2.5-cm long jejunal tube was fabricated from a segment of the loop removed 15 cm from the Treitz angle and interposed between the common bile duct and duodenum. Results: The animals presented good clinical evolution and no complications were observed. After 6 weeks, complete integration was noted between the bile duct mucosa, tube and duodenum and a significant reduction in total bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase was observed when compared to the values obtained one week after ligation of the common bile duct. Conclusion: The jejunal tube interposed between the dilated bile duct and duodenum showed good anatomic integration and reduced total bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase levels in the animals studied.

Endothelial nitric oxide synthase is not essential for the development of fibrosis and portal hypertension in bile duct ligated mice

BACKGROUND/AIMS: It is postulated that nitric oxide (NO) is responsible for the hyperdynamic circulation of portal hypertension. Therefore, we investigated induction of fibrosis and hyperdynamic circulation in endothelial NO synthase knock-out (KO) mice. METHODS: Fibrosis was induced by bile duct ligation. Hemodynamic studies were performed after portal vein ligation. All studies were performed in wild-type (WT) and KO mice. RESULTS: Three to 4 weeks after bile duct ligation (BDL), both WT and KO groups had similar degrees of portal hypertension, 12 (9-14) and 11(8-15) mmHg, median (range), and liver function. Fibrosis increased from 0.0% in sham operated to 1.0 and 1.1% in WT and KO mice, respectively. Cardiac output was similar after portal vein ligation (20 and 17 ml/min in WT and KO mice, respectively). There was no difference in liver of mRNA for endothelin 1, inducible NO synthase (iNOS) and hem-oxygenase 1 (HO1); proteins of iNOS, HO1 and HO2; nor in endothelin A and B (EtA and EtB) receptor density between WT and KO mice after BDL. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that endothelial NO synthase is neither essential for the development of fibrosis and portal hypertension in bile duct ligated mice, nor for the hyperdynamic circulation associated with portal hypertension in the portal vein ligated mice.

Quantificação das células estreladas ativadas / miofibroblastos e análise da apoptose das células do fígado durante a terapia celular na fibrose hepática em ratos

A fibrose hepática é o resultado de uma resposta cicatrizante frente a repetidas lesões no fígado, e é caracterizada pelo acúmulo excessivo de proteínas da matriz extracelular (MEC) no parênquima hepático, incluindo colágeno, fibronectina, elastina, laminina e proteoglicanos, com a participação de diferentes populações celulares do fígado. As principais células responsáveis pela síntese de proteínas da MEC na fibrose hepática são as células estreladas hepáticas ativadas e os miofibroblastos, que surgem após estímulo inflamatório e são caracterizadas pela expressão de alfa-actina de músculo liso (α-SMA). Sabe-se que durante a progressão da fibrose hepática, ocorre a morte de hepatócitos e sua substituição por células fibrogênicas α-SMA+. A apoptose dessas células fibrogênicas é de grande relevância para a regressão da fibrose e regeneração hepática. Nos últimos anos, a terapia com células tronco de medula óssea tem sido utilizada para estimular a regeneração hepática em diferentes modelos experimentais e protocolos clínicos. A fração mononuclear da medula óssea adulta possui duas populações de células-tronco importantes no tratamento de diversas doenças hepáticas: células-tronco hematopoiéticas e células-tronco mesenquimais. O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar a expressão de α-SMA e o processo de apoptose de células hepáticas durante a fibrose hepática induzida por ligadura do ducto biliar (LDB) e após o transplante de células mononucleares de medula óssea (CMMO). Os fígados foram coletados de ratos dos seguintes grupos: normal, 14 dias de LDB, 21 dias de LDB e animais que receberam CMMO após 14 dias de LDB, e foram analisados após 7 dias (totalizando 21 dias de LDB). Para quantificar a expressão de α-SMA por células fibrogênicas nos grupos experimentais, foi realizada imunoperoxidase para α-SMA, seguida de morfometria no programa Image Pro Plus. Para analisar a apoptose nas células hepáticas, foi realizada imunoperoxidase e Western Blotting (WB) para caspase-3 (proteína apoptótica) e imunofluorescência com dupla-marcação para caspase-3 e α-SMA, seguida de observação em microscópio confocal. Os resultados da quantificação de α-SMA por morfometria mostraram que a expressão de α-SMA aumentou significativamente 14 e 21 dias após a LDB. Entretanto, essa expressão diminuiu significativamente no grupo tratado com CMMO, que apresentou parênquima hepático mais preservado em relação ao grupo com 21 dias de LDB. Os resultados de imunoperoxidase, WB e microscopia confocal para expressão de caspase-3 demonstraram que essa proteína diminuiu nos animais fibróticos com 14 e 21 dias de LDB com relação ao grupo normal, e estava significativamente elevada no grupo tratado com CMMO. A análise por microscopia confocal demonstrou que algumas células coexpressaram α-SMA e caspase-3 nos animais tratados com CMMO, sugerindo a morte de células fibrogênicas e remodelamento do parênquima hepático.

O transplante de células mononucleares de medula óssea contribui para o remodelamento da matriz extracelular durante a regeneração do fígado em ratos com fibrose hepática induzida por ligadura do ducto biliar

A fibrose hepática é o resultado de uma lesão crônica, com a ativação de células inflamatórias e fibrogênicas no fígado, as quais levam a um acúmulo excessivo de proteínas de matriz extracelular (MEC). Essas alterações resultam na morte de células do fígado, com desorganização e perda da função do parênquima hepático. A cirrose é o estágio avançado da fibrose, e culmina na falência hepática, uma condição potencialmente fatal cujo único tratamento efetivo é o transplante de fígado, o qual é limitado pela disponibilidade de órgãos. Na busca por terapias alternativas visando a regeneração hepática, o transplante de células mononucleares de medula óssea (CMMO) mostrou resultados benéficos e promissores em modelos animais e alguns protocolos clínicos. Entre essas células, estão as células-tronco hematopoiéticas e mesenquimais, que apresentam potencial regenerativo e modulador da resposta inflamatória. Este estudo pretendeu avançar na compreensão dos mecanismos pelos quais as CMMO podem ajudar na regeneração hepática. Ratos com fibrose hepática induzida por ligadura do ducto biliar (LDB) foram transplantados com CMMO e comparados com ratos com fibrose sem transplante e ratos normais. Parâmetros hepáticos como componentes da MEC (colágeno total, colágenos tipos I e IV, laminina, metaloproteinases de matriz MMPs), componentes celulares (células fibrogênicas, células de Kupffer e colangiócitos) e enzimas hepáticas foram analisados por microscopia de luz, microscopia confocal, western blotting e espectrofotometria. Os resultados mostraram que o transplante de CMMO contribui para a regeneração hepática de maneira global, (a) diminuindo o acúmulo de colágeno e laminina; (b) aumentando a produção de MMPs que favorecem o remodelamento da MEC, principalmente por células de Kupffer; (c) normalizando a quantidade de colangiócitos e diminuindo a quantidade de células fibrogênicas; e (d) normalizando os níveis sanguíneos das enzimas hepáticas. Portanto, nós sugerimos que as CMMO podem ajudar na regeneração hepática através de mecanismos parácrinos e se diferenciando em células de Kupffer, contribuindo para a secreção de fatores antiinflamatórios e anti-fibrogênicos no fígado com fibrose.

Estudo do efeito do transplante de células mononucleares de medula óssea na bioenergética mitocondrial de ratos com fibrose hepática

A disfunção mitocondrial tem sido associada a várias doenças, incluindo a colestase hepática, caracterizada pela ativação de células de Kupffer e células fibrogênicas, as quais produzem matriz extracelular excessiva. O acúmulo de sais biliares tóxicos no parênquima hepático leva à lesão crônica com dano mitocondrial, redução da síntese de ATP, aumento de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ROS) e apoptose, resultando em comprometimento da função hepática. Trabalhos anteriores do nosso grupo mostraram o efeito positivo do transplante de células mononucleares da medula óssea (CMMO) na resolução da fibrose hepática e recuperação da função hepática em ratos com colestase, induzida pela ligadura de ducto biliar (LDB). Assim, o presente estudo teve como objetivo analisar a bioenergética mitocondrial após o transplante de CMMO no fígado de ratos com fibrose induzida por ligadura de ducto bilar (LDB). Ratos Wistar machos foram divididos em quatro grupos: animais normais, animais com fibrose hepática após 14 e 21 dias de LDB (F14d e F21d, respectivamente), e animais que após 14 dias de LDB receberam 1x107 CMMO, e foram eutanasiados sete dias após. Nossos dados demonstraram aumento do conteúdo de colágeno tipo I no grupo F21d em relação ao grupo normal, indicativo de fibrose, e sua diminuição após o transplante de CMMO. A análise da fisiologia mitocondrial do fígado mostrou diminuição significativa da taxa respiratória máxima estimulada por ADP (estado 3) nos grupos F14d e F21d, indicando redução da capacidade de oxidação de carboidratos e ácidos graxos. Além disso, a razão do controle respiratório (RCR), indicativa de acoplamento da fosforilação oxidativa com a produção de ATP, apresentou-se significativamente diminuída nos grupos F14d e F21d, sugerindo desacoplamento mitocondrial. No entanto, o transplante de CMMO aumentou significativamente nestes grupos tanto a capacidade oxidativa quanto o acoplamento mitocondrial a níveis semelhantes aos do grupo normal. Estes resultados foram confirmados por análise de western blotting, que mostrou aumento significativo no conteúdo de UCP2 e diminuição do conteúdo de PGC-1α no grupo F21d, com consequente restauração após o transplante de CMMO. Além disso, os resultados mostraram um aumento significativo do conteúdo de 4-HNE no grupo F14d com redução após o transplante CMMO. Assim, podemos concluir que o transplante de CMMO tem um efeito positivo sobre a bioenergética mitocondrial de fígados de ratos com colestase, com aumento da capacidade oxidativa e redução do estresse oxidativo, o que, por sua vez, contribui para a recuperação da função hepática.

ENaC activity in collecting ducts modulates NCC in cirrhotic mice.

Cirrhosis is a frequent and severe disease, complicated by renal sodium retention leading to ascites and oedema. A better understanding of the complex mechanisms responsible for renal sodium handling could improve clinical management of sodium retention. Our aim was to determine the importance of the amiloride-sensitive epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) in collecting ducts in compensate and decompensate cirrhosis. Bile duct ligation was performed in control mice (CTL) and collecting duct-specific αENaC knockout (KO) mice, and ascites development, aldosterone plasma concentration, urinary sodium/potassium ratio and sodium transporter expression were compared. Disruption of ENaC in collecting ducts (CDs) did not alter ascites development, urinary sodium/potassium ratio, plasma aldosterone concentrations or Na,K-ATPase abundance in CCDs. Total αENaC abundance in whole kidney increased in cirrhotic mice of both genotypes and cleaved forms of α and γ ENaC increased only in ascitic mice of both genotypes. The sodium chloride cotransporter (NCC) abundance was lower in non-ascitic KO, compared to non-ascitic CTL, and increased when ascites appeared. In ascitic mice, the lack of αENaC in CDs induced an upregulation of total ENaC and NCC and correlated with the cleavage of ENaC subunits. This revealed compensatory mechanisms which could also take place when treating the patients with diuretics. These compensatory mechanisms should be considered for future development of therapeutic strategies.

Le rôle du stress oxydatif/nitrosatif dans la pathogénèse de l’encéphalopathie hépatique chronique

L'encéphalopathie hépatique (EH) est un syndrome neuropsychiatrique dû à une dysfonction hépatique où l'ammoniaque est un facteur central. Il a déjà été rapporté que l’intoxication aiguë d'ammoniaque induise le stress oxydatif/nitrosatif. La présente étude cible à évaluer le rôle du stress oxydatif/nitrosatif dans 2 modèles de l’EH chronique : (1) l’anastomose portocave (PCA) et (2) la ligation de la voie biliaire (BDL). Ces 2 modèles sont caractérisés par une hyperammoniémie et une augmentation d’ammoniaque centrale, cependant l’œdème cérébral est trouvé seulement chez les rats BDL. Des marqueurs du stress oxydatif/nitrosatif ont été évaluées dans le plasma et cortex frontal. Un stress nitrosatif central a été observé chez les rats PCA; tandis qu’un stress oxydatif/nitrosatif systémique a été démontré seulement chez les rats BDL. Ces résultats suggèrent (1) que l’hyperammoniémie chronique n’induise pas le stress oxydatif/nitrosatif systémique et (2) qu’un synergisme existe entre l’ammoniaque et le stress oxydatif/nitrosatif, en association avec l’œdème cérébral.

Le rôle de la barrière hémato-encéphalique dans la pathogénèse de l'oedème chez des rats souffrant d'insuffisance hépatique chronique

L’œdème cérébral est une complication associée à l’encéphalopathie hépatique (EH) lors d’une insuffisance hépatique chronique (cirrhose du foie). Présentement, l’origine de sa pathogenèse, vasogénique (rupture de la barrière hémato-encéphalique (BHE)) ou cytotoxique (prise anormale d’ions), n’a pas encore été déterminée. Il a été démontré que le co-transporteur Na-K-Cl (NKCC1) du côté luminal des microvaisseaux sanguins cérébraux (CMV) joue un rôle dans le développement de l’œdème cérébral dans des modèles d’ischémie où la bumetanide, un inhibiteur de NKCC, atténue l’œdème cérébral. Deux modèles d’EH ont été utilisés pour cette étude i) la ligature de la voie biliaire (BDL) qui présente l’hyperammoniémie chronique, l’œdème cérébral et le stress oxydatif systémique ; ii) l’anastomose portocave (PCA) qui présente de l’hyperammoniémie chronique seulement. Les buts du projet étaient de: i) définir l’origine du développement de l’œdème chez les rats BDL en étudiant l’extravasation de macromolécules, les jonctions serrées et l’activation des métalloprotéinases matricielles de la BHE; ii) observer les effets de l’hyperammoniémie chronique indépendamment sur la BHE chez les rats PCA; iii) évaluer le rôle de l’hyperammoniémie et du stress oxydatif et iv) étudier le rôle du NKCC1 dans les CMV dans la pathogenèse de l’œdème cérébral. Les résultats du projet démontrent que l’œdème est d’origine cytotoxique chez les rats BDL et que l’intégrité de la BHE est conservée chez les rats PCA malgré l’hyperammoniémie. L’expression génique du NKCC1 est associée à l’œdème mais pas son expression protéique et sa phosphorylation. Enfin, l’étude démontre que l’hyperammoniémie et le stress oxydatif indépendant ne jouent pas un rôle dans la pathogenèse de l’œdème mais suggère qu’ils y aient un effet synergique.

Systemic oxidative stress is implicated in the pathogenesis of brain edema in rats with chronic liver failure.

Chronic liver failure leads to hyperammonemia, a central component in the pathogenesis of hepatic encephalopathy (HE); however, a correlation between blood ammonia levels and HE severity remains controversial. It is believed oxidative stress plays a role in modulating the effects of hyperammonemia. This study aimed to determine the relationship between chronic hyperammonemia, oxidative stress, and brain edema (BE) in two rat models of HE: portacaval anastomosis (PCA) and bile-duct ligation (BDL). Ammonia and reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, BE, oxidant and antioxidant enzyme activities, as well as lipid peroxidation were assessed both systemically and centrally in these two different animal models. Then, the effects of allopurinol (xanthine oxidase inhibitor, 100mg/kg for 10days) on ROS and BE and the temporal resolution of ammonia, ROS, and BE were evaluated only in BDL rats. Similar arterial and cerebrospinal fluid ammonia levels were found in PCA and BDL rats, both significantly higher compared to their respective sham-operated controls (p<0.05). BE was detected in BDL rats (p<0.05) but not in PCA rats. Evidence of oxidative stress was found systemically but not centrally in BDL rats: increased levels of ROS, increased activity of xanthine oxidase (oxidant enzyme), enhanced oxidative modifications on lipids, as well as decreased antioxidant defense. In PCA rats, a preserved oxidant/antioxidant balance was demonstrated. Treatment with allopurinol in BDL rats attenuated both ROS and BE, suggesting systemic oxidative stress is implicated in the pathogenesis of BE. Analysis of ROS and ammonia temporal resolution in the plasma of BDL rats suggests systemic oxidative stress might be an important "first hit", which, followed by increases in ammonia, leads to BE in chronic liver failure. In conclusion, chronic hyperammonemia and oxidative stress in combination lead to the onset of BE in rats with chronic liver failure.

Pathogenèse de l’oedème cérébral dans l’encéphalopathie hépatique minimale : rôles du stress oxydatif et du lactate

L’encéphalopathie hépatique (EH) est un syndrome neuropsychiatrique découlant des complications de l'insuffisance hépatique. Les patients souffrant d'une insuffisance hépatique chronique (IHC) présentent fréquemment une EH minimale (EHM) caractérisée par des dysfonctions cognitives subtiles qui affectent leur qualité de vie. L'insuffisance hépatique entraîne une hyperammoniémie, le facteur central dans la pathogenèse de l'EH. Pourtant, les taux d'ammoniaque sérique ne sont pas corrélés avec la sévérité de l'EH lors d'une IHC, suggérant que d'autres facteurs y contribuent. L'oedème cérébral est une caractéristique neuropathologique décrite chez les patients souffrant d'une EHM et plusieurs facteurs dont le stress oxydatif, les altérations du métabolisme énergétique et l'augmentation de la glutamine cérébrale pourraient contribuer à la pathogenèse de l'oedème cérébral lors d'une EHM induite par une IHC. Les mécanismes sous-jacents exacts ainsi que les relations entre ces facteurs et l'ammoniaque ne sont pas connus. Présentement, le seul traitement efficace de l'IHC est la transplantation hépatique, une option thérapeutique très limitée. Le but de cette thèse est de contribuer à l'avancement des connaissances sur les mécanismes sous-jacents liés au rôle du stress oxydatif, de la glutamine et du lactate dans la pathogenèse de l'oedème cérébral lors d'une EHM induite par une IHC afin d'envisager de nouvelles options thérapeutiques. Les objectifs précis étaient: 1. Établir le rôle de l’ammoniaque et sa relation avec le stress oxydatif dans la pathogenèse de l'oedème cérébral lors d'une EHM induite par une IHC. 2. Établir le rôle du stress oxydatif dans la pathogenèse de l'oedème cérébral, sa relation avec l'ammoniaque et l'effet du traitement avec des antioxydants. 3. Confirmer l'effet synergique entre l'ammoniaque et le stress oxydatif dans la pathogenèse de l'oedème cérébral. 4. Établir le rôle du lactate et de la glutamine dans la pathogenèse de l'oedème cérébral et leur relation avec l’ammoniaque. Pour atteindre ces objectifs, 2 modèles animaux d'EHM obtenus par microchirurgie chez le rat ont été utilisés: 1) la ligature de voie biliaire, un modèle d'IHC et 2) l'anastomose porto-cave, un modèle d'hyperammoniémie induite par la dérivation portosystémique. Nos résultats démontrent que l'ammoniaque et le stress oxydatif indépendamment n'induisent pas l'oedème cérébral lors d'une EHM. Pourtant, lorsque les 2 facteurs agissent ensemble ils présentent ii un effet synergique qui entraîne le développement de l'oedème cérébral, le stress oxydatif étant une première insulte, qui est suivie par l'hyperammoniémie comme deuxième insulte. En plus, le stress oxydatif a été mis en évidence seulement au niveau systémique, et non au niveau central dans notre modèle d'IHC en association avec l'oedème cérébral, suggérant que le stress oxydatif systémique est une conséquence de la dysfonction hépatique et que l'hyperammoniémie n’induit pas le stress oxydatif ni systémique ni central. Nous avons démontré qu’une augmentation du lactate cérébral est une conséquence directe de l'hyperammoniémie et joue un rôle important dans la pathogenèse de l'oedème cérébral lors d'une EHM induite par une IHC, tandis qu’une augmentation de la glutamine au niveau cérébral n'est pas un facteur clé. La compréhension de ces mécanismes a entraîné la proposition de 3 nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques potentielles pour l'EHM. Elles ciblent la diminution de l'ammoniaque sérique, la réduction du stress oxydatif et l'inhibition de la synthèse du lactate.