[health Protection For Rural Workers: The Need To Standardize Techniques For Quantifying Dermal Exposure To Pesticides].

Quantification of dermal exposure to pesticides in rural workers, used in risk assessment, can be performed with different techniques such as patches or whole body evaluation. However, the wide variety of methods can jeopardize the process by producing disparate results, depending on the principles in sample collection. A critical review was thus performed on the main techniques for quantifying dermal exposure, calling attention to this issue and the need to establish a single methodology for quantification of dermal exposure in rural workers. Such harmonization of different techniques should help achieve safer and healthier working conditions. Techniques that can provide reliable exposure data are an essential first step towards avoiding harm to workers' health.

Evaluation of exposure biomarkers in offshore workers exposed to low benzene and toluene concentrations.

Characterize ethylbenzene and xylene air concentrations, and explore the biological exposure markers (urinary t,t-muconic acid (t,t-MA) and unmetabolized toluene) among petroleum workers offshore. Offshore workers have increased health risks due to simultaneous exposures to several hydrocarbons present in crude oil. We discuss the pooled benzene exposure results from our previous and current studies and possible co-exposure interactions. BTEX air concentrations were measured during three consecutive 12-h work shifts among 10 tank workers, 15 process operators, and 18 controls. Biological samples were collected pre-shift on the first day of study and post-shift on the third day of the study. The geometric mean exposure over the three work shifts were 0.02 ppm benzene, 0.05 ppm toluene, 0.03 ppm ethylbenzene, and 0.06 ppm xylene. Benzene in air was significantly correlated with unmetabolized benzene in blood (r = 0.69, p < 0.001) and urine (r = 0.64, p < 0.001), but not with urinary t,t-MA (r = 0.27, p = 0.20). Toluene in air was highly correlated with the internal dose of toluene in both blood (r = 0.70, p < 0.001) and urine (r = 0.73, p < 0.001). Co-exposures were present; however, an interaction of metabolism was not likely at these low benzene and toluene exposures. Urinary benzene, but not t,t-MA, was a reliable biomarker for benzene at low exposure levels. Urinary toluene was a useful biomarker for toluene exposure. Xylene and ethylbenzene air levels were low. Dermal exposure assessment needs to be performed in future studies among these workers.

Development of a retrospective job exposure matrix for PCB-exposed workers in capacitor manufacturing

Objectives: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are considered probable human carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer and one congener, PCB126, has been rated as a known human carcinogen. A period-specific job exposure matrix (JEM) was developed for former PCB-exposed capacitor manufacturing workers (n=12,605) (1938-1977). Methods: A detailed exposure assessment for this plant was based on a number of exposure determinants (proximity, degree of contact with PCBs, temperature, ventilation, process control, job mobility). The intensity and frequency of PCB exposures by job for both inhalation and dermal exposures, and additional chemical exposures were reviewed. The JEM was developed in nine steps: (1) all unique jobs (n=1,684) were assessed using (2) defined PCB exposure determinants; (3) the exposure determinants were used to develop exposure profiles; (4) similar exposure profiles were combined into categories having similar PCB exposures; (5) qualitative intensity (high-medium-low-baseline) and frequency (continuous-intermittent) ratings were developed, and (6) used to qualitatively rate inhalation and dermal exposure separately for each category; (7) quantitative intensity ratings based on available air concentrations were developed for inhalation and dermal exposures based on equal importance of both routes of exposure; (8) adjustments were made for overall exposure, and (9) for each category the product of intensity and frequency was calculated, and exposure in the earlier era was weighted. Results: A period-specific JEM modified for two eras of stable PCB exposure conditions. Conclusions: These exposure estimates, derived from a systematic and rigorous use of the exposure determinant data, lead to cumulative PCB exposure-response relationships in the epidemiological cancer mortality and incidence studies of this cohort. [Authors]

Toxicokinetic modeling of folpet fungicide and its ring-biomarkers of exposure in humans.

A human in vivo toxicokinetic model was built to allow a better understanding of the toxicokinetics of folpet fungicide and its key ring biomarkers of exposure: phthalimide (PI), phthalamic acid (PAA) and phthalic acid (PA). Both PI and the sum of ring metabolites, expressed as PA equivalents (PAeq), may be used as biomarkers of exposure. The conceptual representation of the model was based on the analysis of the time course of these biomarkers in volunteers orally and dermally exposed to folpet. In the model, compartments were also used to represent the body burden of folpet and experimentally relevant PI, PAA and PA ring metabolites in blood and in key tissues as well as in excreta, hence urinary and feces. The time evolution of these biomarkers in each compartment of the model was then mathematically described by a system of coupled differential equations. The mathematical parameters of the model were then determined from best fits to the time courses of PI and PAeq in blood and urine of five volunteers administered orally 1 mg kg(-1) and dermally 10 mg kg(-1) of folpet. In the case of oral administration, the mean elimination half-life of PI from blood (through feces, urine or metabolism) was found to be 39.9 h as compared with 28.0 h for PAeq. In the case of a dermal application, mean elimination half-life of PI and PAeq was estimated to be 34.3 and 29.3 h, respectively. The average final fractions of administered dose recovered in urine as PI over the 0-96 h period were 0.030 and 0.002%, for oral and dermal exposure, respectively. Corresponding values for PAeq were 24.5 and 1.83%, respectively. Finally, the average clearance rate of PI from blood calculated from the oral and dermal data was 0.09 ± 0.03 and 0.13 ± 0.05 ml h(-1) while the volume of distribution was 4.30 ± 1.12 and 6.05 ± 2.22 l, respectively. It was not possible to obtain the corresponding values from PAeq data owing to the lack of blood time course data.

Evaluation of respiratory and dermal occupational exposures to monoethanolamine during cleaning

Professional cleaning is a basic service occupation with a wide variety of tasks carried out in all kind of different sectors and workplaces by a large workforce. One important risk for cleaning workers is the exposure to chemical substances that are present in cleaning products.Monoethanolamine was found to be often present in cleaning products such as general purpose cleaners, bathroom cleaners, floor cleaners and kitchen cleaners. Monoethanolamine can injure the skin, and exposure to monoethanolamine was associated to asthma even when the air concentrations were low. It is a strong irritant and known to be involved in sensitizing mechanisms. It is very likely that the use of cleaning products containing monoethanolamine gives rise to respiratory and dermal exposures. Therefore there is a need to further investigate the exposures to monoethanolamine for both, respiratory and dermal exposure.The determination of monoethanolamine has traditionally been difficult and analytical methods available are little adapted for occupational exposure assessments. For monoethanolamine air concentrations, a sampling and analytical method was already available and could be used. However, a method to analyses samples for skin exposure assessments as well as samples of skin permeation experiments was missing. Therefore one main objective of this master thesis was to search an already developed and described analytical method for the measurement of monoethanolamine in water solutions, and to set it up in the laboratory. Monoethanolamine was analyzed after a derivatisation reaction with o-pthtaldialdehyde. The derivated fluorescing monoethanolamine was then separated with high performance liquid chromatography and detection took place with a fluorescent detector. The method was found to be suitable for qualitative and quantitative analysis of monoethanolamine. An exposure assessment was conducted in the cleaning sector to measure the respiratory and dermal exposures to monoethanolamine during floor cleaning. Stationary air samples (n=36) were collected in 8 companies and samples for dermal exposures (n=12) were collected in two companies. Air concentrations (Mean = 0.18 mg/m3, Standard Deviation = 0.23 mg/m3, geometric Mean = 0.09 mg/m3, Geometric Standard Deviation = 3.50) detected were mostly below 1/10 of the Swiss 8h time weighted average occupational exposure limit. Factors that influenced the measured monoethanolamine air concentrations were room size, ventilation system and the concentration of monoethanolamine in the cleaning product and amount of monoethanolamine used. Measured skin exposures ranged from 0.6 to 128.4 mg/sample. Some cleaning workers that participated in the skin exposure assessment did not use gloves and had direct contact with the solutions containing the cleaning product and monoethanolamine. During the entire sampling campaign, cleaning workers mostly did not use gloves. Cleaning workers are at risk to be regularly exposed to low air concentrations of monoethanolamine. This exposure may be problematic if a worker suffers from allergic reactions (e.g. Asthma). In that case a substitution of the cleaning product may be a good prevention measure as several different cleaning products are available for similar cleaning tasks. Currently there are no occupational exposure limits to compare the skin exposures that were found. To prevent skin exposures, adaptations of the cleaning techniques and the use of gloves should be considered. The simultaneous skin and airborne exposures might accelerate adverse health effects. Overall the risks caused by exposures to monoethanolamine are considered as low to moderate when the cleaning products are used correctly. Whenever possible, skin exposures should be avoided. Further research should consider especially the dermal exposure routes, as very high exposures might occur by skin contact with cleaning products. Dermatitis but also sensitization might be caused by skin exposures. In addition, new biomedical insights are needed to better understand the risks of the dermal exposure. Therefore skin permeability experiments should be considered.

A web-based tool to aid the identification of chemicals potentially posing a health risk through percutaneous exposure

Occupational hygiene practitioners typically assess the risk posed by occupational exposure by comparing exposure measurements to regulatory occupational exposure limits (OELs). In most jurisdictions, OELs are only available for exposure by the inhalation pathway. Skin notations are used to indicate substances for which dermal exposure may lead to health effects. However, these notations are either present or absent and provide no indication of acceptable levels of exposure. Furthermore, the methodology and framework for assigning skin notation differ widely across jurisdictions resulting in inconsistencies in the substances that carry notations. The UPERCUT tool was developed in response to these limitations. It helps occupational health stakeholders to assess the hazard associated with dermal exposure to chemicals. UPERCUT integrates dermal quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSARs) and toxicological data to provide users with a skin hazard index called the dermal hazard ratio (DHR) for the substance and scenario of interest. The DHR is the ratio between the estimated 'received' dose and the 'acceptable' dose. The 'received' dose is estimated using physico-chemical data and information on the exposure scenario provided by the user (body parts exposure and exposure duration), and the 'acceptable' dose is estimated using inhalation OELs and toxicological data. The uncertainty surrounding the DHR is estimated with Monte Carlo simulation. Additional information on the selected substances includes intrinsic skin permeation potential of the substance and the existence of skin notations. UPERCUT is the only available tool that estimates the absorbed dose and compares this to an acceptable dose. In the absence of dermal OELs it provides a systematic and simple approach for screening dermal exposure scenarios for 1686 substances.

Behavioral effects of acute exposure to the insecticide fipronil

The effects of fipronil (Frontline (R) Top Spot) were investigated in 40 days old rats utilizing open field (OF), hole-board (HB) and elevated plus-maze (EPM) apparatus. Rats (N=15) received topical application of fipronil (70, 140 and 280 mg/kg) in the neck region and behavior was tested 3 h after administration. Animals treated with corn oil (vehicle) were used as controls. In the of test animals treated with fipronil at 140 mg/kg showed increased rearing, whereas animals exposed to 280 mg/kg showed increased freezing, grooming, and rearing. In the HB test fipronil at 280 mg/kg increased head-dip and head-dipping behaviors. In the EPM test the only observed effect was increased number of entries in both open and closed EPM arms in animals treated with 280 mg/kg. In conclusion, dermal exposure to fipronil causes effects related to emotionality, fear, and exploratory activity; results add strength to the growing concern that pirazole insecticides can be neurotoxic to humans. Published by Elsevier B.V.

Dermal deposition of diazinon on workers using various sheep ectoparasiticide application systems

This study measured the dermal deposition levels of diazinon on workers who apply the ectoparasiticide to sheep using one of five different application systems, namely, portable plunge dipping, fixed plunge dipping, shower dipping, hand jetting, and automatic jetting races. The highest level of dermal exposure occurred while hand jetting and a comparable level occurred in automatic jetting races. The next highest level of dermal exposure was while using the portable and the fixed plunge dipping systems. The shower dipping system appeared to expose workers to the least deposition of diazinon. The variability between the different methods was statistically significant, and the contrast between the three applications using dipping and the two using jetting was highly statistically significant. The variability between testing sessions was too great to allow the methods to be ranked as accurately as the authors would prefer. However, the differences between the methods were large enough to be of practical importance to OHS risk management. (author abstract)

Task-based approach used on surfaces sampling strategy definition: the case of antineoplastic occupational exposure

Task-based approach implicates identifying all the tasks developed in each workplace aiming to refine the exposure characterization. The starting point of this approach is the recognition that only through a more detailed and comprehensive understanding of tasks is possible to understand, in more detail, the exposure scenario. In addition allows also the most suitable risk management measures identification. This approach can be also used when there is a need of identifying the workplace surfaces for sampling chemicals that have the dermal exposure route as the most important. In this case is possible to identify, through detail observation of tasks performance, the surfaces that involves higher contact (frequency) by the workers and can be contaminated. Identify the surfaces to sample when performing occupational exposure assessment to antineoplasic agents. Surfaces selection done based on the task-based approach.

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Pollution of air, water and soil by industrial chemicals presents a potential health risk to humans. Such chemicals can enter the human body by three routes, namely by inhalation, dermal absorption, and ingestion and in special cases by injection (needle sticks, bites, cuts, etc.). In the workplace, pulmonary and dermal absorption are the main routes of entry, but poor personal hygiene and work habits can result in ingestion that contributes to the dose. Air monitoring provides reliable information on inhalation exposure, and patches can be used to estimate dermal exposure. Local adverse effects, such as skin and eye irritation, or nose and lung irritation, are closely related to the external exposure. Systemic adverse effects, on the other hand, are related to the absorbed amount (dose), or to the level of the pollutant or its metabolite in the target organ. Human biological monitoring is becoming a powerful tool for scientists and policy makers to assess and manage the risk of exposure to chemicals both in the general population and at the workpalce. This chapter will focus on the occupational environment keeping in mind that biological monitoring in humans is a very actual issue in public health politics, in environmental medicine, and in science in general.

Caractérisation de la composante toxicocinétique du facteur d’ajustement pour la variabilité interindividuelle utilisé en analyse du risque toxicologique

Un facteur d’incertitude de 10 est utilisé par défaut lors de l’élaboration des valeurs toxicologiques de référence en santé environnementale, afin de tenir compte de la variabilité interindividuelle dans la population. La composante toxicocinétique de cette variabilité correspond à racine de 10, soit 3,16. Sa validité a auparavant été étudiée sur la base de données pharmaceutiques colligées auprès de diverses populations (adultes, enfants, aînés). Ainsi, il est possible de comparer la valeur de 3,16 au Facteur d’ajustement pour la cinétique humaine (FACH), qui constitue le rapport entre un centile élevé (ex. : 95e) de la distribution de la dose interne dans des sous-groupes présumés sensibles et sa médiane chez l’adulte, ou encore à l’intérieur d’une population générale. Toutefois, les données expérimentales humaines sur les polluants environnementaux sont rares. De plus, ces substances ont généralement des propriétés sensiblement différentes de celles des médicaments. Il est donc difficile de valider, pour les polluants, les estimations faites à partir des données sur les médicaments. Pour résoudre ce problème, la modélisation toxicocinétique à base physiologique (TCBP) a été utilisée pour simuler la variabilité interindividuelle des doses internes lors de l’exposition aux polluants. Cependant, les études réalisées à ce jour n’ont que peu permis d’évaluer l’impact des conditions d’exposition (c.-à-d. voie, durée, intensité), des propriétés physico/biochimiques des polluants, et des caractéristiques de la population exposée sur la valeur du FACH et donc la validité de la valeur par défaut de 3,16. Les travaux de la présente thèse visent à combler ces lacunes. À l’aide de simulations de Monte-Carlo, un modèle TCBP a d’abord été utilisé pour simuler la variabilité interindividuelle des doses internes (c.-à-d. chez les adultes, ainés, enfants, femmes enceintes) de contaminants de l’eau lors d’une exposition par voie orale, respiratoire, ou cutanée. Dans un deuxième temps, un tel modèle a été utilisé pour simuler cette variabilité lors de l’inhalation de contaminants à intensité et durée variables. Ensuite, un algorithme toxicocinétique à l’équilibre probabiliste a été utilisé pour estimer la variabilité interindividuelle des doses internes lors d’expositions chroniques à des contaminants hypothétiques aux propriétés physico/biochimiques variables. Ainsi, les propriétés de volatilité, de fraction métabolisée, de voie métabolique empruntée ainsi que de biodisponibilité orale ont fait l’objet d’analyses spécifiques. Finalement, l’impact du référent considéré et des caractéristiques démographiques sur la valeur du FACH lors de l’inhalation chronique a été évalué, en ayant recours également à un algorithme toxicocinétique à l’équilibre. Les distributions de doses internes générées dans les divers scénarios élaborés ont permis de calculer dans chaque cas le FACH selon l’approche décrite plus haut. Cette étude a mis en lumière les divers déterminants de la sensibilité toxicocinétique selon le sous-groupe et la mesure de dose interne considérée. Elle a permis de caractériser les déterminants du FACH et donc les cas où ce dernier dépasse la valeur par défaut de 3,16 (jusqu’à 28,3), observés presqu’uniquement chez les nouveau-nés et en fonction de la substance mère. Cette thèse contribue à améliorer les connaissances dans le domaine de l’analyse du risque toxicologique en caractérisant le FACH selon diverses considérations.

Modélisation toxicocinétique du benzo(a)pyrène et 3-hydroxybenzo(a)pyrène pour l’interprétation des données de surveillance biologique de l’exposition chez les travailleurs

De nombreux travailleurs sont exposés aux hydrocarbures aromatiques polycycliques (HAP). Le benzo(a)pyrène (BaP) fait partie de ce groupe de polluants. Cette substance a été classée cancérogène reconnu chez l’humain. Pour évaluer l'exposition aux HAP cancérogènes, plusieurs chercheurs ont proposé d’utiliser la mesure du 3-hydroxybenzo(a)pyrène (3-OHBaP) dans l’urine des travailleurs exposés. Dans le cadre du présent projet, deux approches de modélisation ont été développées et appliquées pour permettre une meilleure compréhension de la toxicocinétique du BaP et son biomarqueur d’intérêt actuel, le 3-OHBaP, et pour aider à interpréter les résultats de surveillance biologique. Un modèle toxicocinétique à plusieurs compartiments a été développé sur la base des données préalablement obtenues sur le rat par notre groupe. Selon le modèle, le BaP injecté par voie intraveineuse est rapidement distribué du sang vers les tissus (t½ ≈ 4 h), avec une affinité particulière pour les poumons et les composantes lipidiques des tissus. Le BaP est ensuite distribué vers la peau et le foie. Au foie, le BaP est promptement métabolisé et le 3-OHBaP est formé avec une demi-vie de ≈ 3 h. Le métabolisme pulmonaire du BaP a également été pris en compte, mais sa contribution à la cinétique globale du BaP a été jugée négligeable. Une fois formé, le 3-OHBaP est distribué vers les différents organes presque aussi rapidement que la molécule mère (t½ ≈ 2 h). Le profil temporel du 3-OHBaP dans le rein montre une accumulation transitoire en raison de la différence observée entre le taux d’entrée (t½ = 28 min) et le taux de sortie (t½ = 4,5 h). La clairance totale de 3-OHBaP du corps est principalement gouvernée par le taux de transfert de la bile vers le tractus gastro-intestinal (t½ ≈ 4 h). Le modèle toxicocinétique à plusieurs compartiments a réussi à simuler un ensemble indépendant de profils urinaires publiés sur le 3-OHBaP. Ce modèle toxicocinétique à compartiments s'est avéré utile pour la determination des facteurs biologiques déterminants de la cinétique du BaP et du 3-OHBaP. Par la suite, un modèle pharmacocinétique à base physiologique (PCBP) reproduisant le devenir du BaP et du 3-OHBaP chez le rat a été construit. Les organes (ou tissus) représentés comme des compartiments ont été choisis en fonction de données expérimentales obtenues in vivo chez le rat. Les coefficients de partition, les coefficients de perméabilité, les taux de métabolisation, les paramètres d'excrétion, les fractions absorbées et les taux d'absorption pour différentes voies d’exposition ont été obtenus directement à partir des profils sanguins, tissulaires, urinaires et fécaux du BaP et du 3-OHBaP. Les valeurs de ces derniers paramètres ont été calculées par des procédures Monte-Carlo. Des analyses de sensibilité ont ensuite été réalisées pour s’assurer de la stabilité du modèle et pour établir les paramètres les plus sensibles de la cinétique globale. Cette modélisation a permis d’identifier les facteurs déterminants de la cinétique: 1) la sensibilité élevée des paramètres de la métabolisation hépatique du BaP et du 3-OHBaP ainsi que du taux d'élimination; 2) la forte distribution du BaP dans les poumons par rapport à d'autres tissus; 3) la distribution considérable du BaP dans les tissus adipeux et le foie; 4) la forte distribution du 3-OHBaP dans les reins; 5) le transfert limité du BaP par la diffusion tissulaire dans les poumons; 6) le transfert limité du 3-OHBaP par la diffusion tissulaire dans les poumons, les tissus adipeux et les reins; 7) la recirculation entéro-hépatique significative du 3-OHBaP. Suite à des analyses de qualité des ajustements des équations du modèle aux données observées, les probabilités que les simulations reproduisent les données expérimentales par pur hasard se sont avérées toujours inférieures à 10% pour les quatre voies d’exposition : intraveineuse, orale, cutanée et respiratoire. Nous avons extrapolé les modèles cinétiques du rat à l’humain afin de se doter d’un outil permettant de reconstituer les doses absorbées chez des travailleurs exposés dans diverses industries à partir de mesures de l'évolution temporelle du 3-OHBaP dans leur urine. Les résultats de ces modélisations ont ensuite été comparés à ceux de simulations obtenues avec un modèle toxicocinétique à compartiment unique pour vérifier l’utilité comparative d’un modèle simple et complexe. Les deux types de modèle ont ainsi été construits à partir de profils sanguins, tissulaires, urinaires et fécaux du BaP et du 3-OHBaP sur des rats exposés. Ces données ont été obtenues in vivo par voie intraveineuse, cutanée, respiratoire et orale. Ensuite, les modèles ont été extrapolés à l’humain en tenant compte des déterminants biologiques essentiels des différences cinétiques entre le rat et l’humain. Les résultats ont montré que l'inhalation n'était pas la principale voie d'exposition pour plusieurs travailleurs étudiés. Les valeurs de concentrations de BaP dans l’air utilisées afin de simuler les profils d’excrétion urinaire chez les travailleurs étaient différentes des valeurs de concentrations de BaP mesurées dans l’air. Une exposition au BaP par voie cutanée semblait mieux prédire les profils temporels observés. Finalement, les deux types de modélisation se sont avérés utiles pour reproduire et pour interpréter les données disponibles chez des travailleurs.

Risk assessment of trihalomethanes from tap water in Fortaleza, Brazil

The cancer risks (CR) by oral ingestion, dermal absorption, and inhalation exposure of trihalomethanes (THM) from tap water of ten districts in Fortaleza, Brazil were estimated. The mean levels of THM compounds were obtained in Fortaleza tap water as follow: 63.9 mu g L(-1) for chloroform (CHCl(3)), 40.0 mu g L(-1) for bromodichloromethane (CHBrCl(2)), and 15.6 mu g L(-1) for dibromochloromethane (CHBr(2)Cl). Bromoform (CHBr(3)) was not detected. The mean CR for THMs in tap water is 3.96 x 10(-4). The results indicate that Fortaleza residents have a higher CR by inhalation than dermal absorption and oral ingestion. The CR for CHCl(3) contributes with 68% as compared with the total CR, followed by CHBrCl(2) (21%), and CHBr(2)Cl (11%). The hazard index (HI) is about ten times lower than unity, not indicating non-cancer effects.