Interaction and cystogenesis of Toxoplasma gondii within skeletal muscle cells in vitro

Infection by the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii is widely prevalent in humans and animals. To prevent human infection, all meat should be well cooked before consumption, since the parasite is present in skeletal muscle. In this context, the use of skeletal muscle cells (SkMCs) as a cellular model opens up new approaches to investigate T. gondii-host cell interactions. Immunofluorescent detection of proteins that are stage-specific for bradyzoites indicated that complete cystogenesis of T. gondii in in vitro cultures of SkMCs occurs after 96 h of infection. Ultrastructural analysis showed that, after 48 h of interaction, there were alterations on the parasitophorous vacuole membrane, including greater thickness and increased electron density at the inner face of the membrane. The present study demonstrates the potential use of primary cultures of SkMCs to evaluate different molecular aspects of T. gondii invasion and cystogenesis and presents a promising in vitro model for the screening of drug activities toward tissue cysts and bradyzoites.

Biliary and pancreatic dysgenesis in mice harboring a mutation in Pkhd1

Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease is a hereditary fibrocystic disease that involves the kidneys and the biliary tract. Mutations in the PKHD1 gene are responsible for typical forms of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease. We have generated a mouse model with targeted mutation of Pkbd1 by disrupting exon 4, resulting in a mutant transcript with deletion of 66 codons and expression at similar to 30% of wild-type levels. Pkhd1(del4/d3l4) mice develop intrahepatic bile duct proliferation with progressive cyst formation and associated periportal fibrosis. In addition, these mice exhibit extrahepatic manifestations, including pancreatic cysts, splenomegaly, and common bile duct dilation. The kidneys are unaffected both histologically and functionally. Fibrocystin is expressed in the apical membranes and cilia of bile ducts and distal nephron segments but is absent from the proximal tubule. This pattern is unchanged in orthologous models of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease due to mutation in Pkd1 or Pkd2. Mutant fibrocystin in Pkhd1(del4/d3l4) mice also retains this expression pattern. The hypomorphic Pkhd1(del4/d3l4) mouse model provides evidence that reduced functional levels of fibrocystin are sufficient for cystogenesis and fibrosis in the liver and pancreas, but not the kidney, and supports the hypothesis of species-dependent differences in susceptibility of tissues to Pkbdl mutations.

Molecular and cellular pathogenesis of autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease

Autosomal recessive polycystic kidney disease (ARPKD) is an inherited disease characterized by a malformation complex which includes cystically dilated tubules in the kidneys and ductal plate malformation in the liver. The disorder is observed primarily in infancy and childhood, being responsible for significant pediatric morbidity and mortality. All typical forms of ARPKD are caused by mutations in a single gene, PKHD1 (polycystic kidney and hepatic disease 1). This gene has a minimum of 86 exons, assembled into multiple differentially spliced transcripts and has its highest level of expression in kidney, pancreas and liver. Mutational analyses revealed that all patients with both mutations associated with truncation of the longest open reading frame-encoded protein displayed the severe phenotype. This product, polyductin, is a 4,074-amino acid protein expressed in the cytoplasm, plasma membrane and primary apical cilia, a structure that has been implicated in the pathogenesis of different polycystic kidney diseases. In fact, cholangiocytes isolated from an ARPKD rat model develop shorter and dysmorphic cilia, suggesting polyductin to be important for normal ciliary morphology. Polyductin seems also to participate in tubule morphogenesis and cell mitotic orientation along the tubular axis. The recent advances in the understanding of in vitro and animal models of polycystic kidney diseases have shed light on the molecular and cellular mechanisms of cyst formation and progression, allowing the initiation of therapeutic strategy designing and promising perspectives for ARPKD patients. It is notable that vasopressin V2 receptor antagonists can inhibit/halt the renal cystic disease progression in an orthologous rat model of human ARPKD.

Molecular and cellular pathogenesis of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease

Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) is one of the most common human life-threatening monogenic disorders. The disease is characterized by bilateral, progressive renal cystogenesis and cyst and kidney enlargement, often leading to end-stage renal disease, and may include extrarenal manifestations. ADPKD is caused by mutation in one of two genes, PKD1 and PKD2, which encode polycystin-1 (PC1) and polycystin-2 (PC2), respectively. PC2 is a non-selective cation channel permeable to Ca2+, while PC1 is thought to function as a membrane receptor. The cyst cell phenotype includes increased proliferation and apoptosis, dedifferentiation, defective planar polarity, and a secretory pattern associated with extracellular matrix remodeling. The two-hit model for cyst formation has been recently extended by the demonstration that early gene inactivation leads to rapid and diffuse development of renal cysts, while inactivation in adult life is followed by focal and late cyst formation. Renal ischemia/reperfusion, however, can function as a third hit, triggering rapid cyst development in kidneys with Pkd1 inactivation induced in adult life. The PC1-PC2 complex behaves as a sensor in the primary cilium, mediating signal transduction via Ca2+ signaling. The intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis is impaired in ADPKD, being apparently responsible for the cAMP accumulation and abnormal cell proliferative response to cAMP. Activated mammalian target for rapamycin (mTOR) and cell cycle dysregulation are also significant features of PKD. Based on the identification of pathways altered in PKD, a large number of preclinical studies have been performed and are underway, providing a basis for clinical trials in ADPKD and helping the design of future trials.

Analyse fonctionnelle de la polycystine-1 et de son domaine intracellulaire dans le développement de la polykystose rénale autosomique dominante

La polykystose rénale autosomique dominante (PKRAD) est la maladie génétique rénale la plus commune touchant 1/500 personnes. Elle se caractérise principalement par la formation de kystes rénaux dans tous les segments du néphron, entraînant l’insuffisance rénale, et par des manifestations extrarénales kystiques (foie, pancréas, rate) et non-kystiques (anomalies cardiaques, vasculaires et cérébrales). Deux gènes, PKD1 et PKD2, sont responsables de 85 et 15% des cas respectivement. Ces gènes encodent les polycystine-1 (PC-1) et -2 (PC-2) qui forment un complexe à la membrane plasmique et ciliaire des cellules épithéliales rénales. PC-1 est une protéine transmembranaire de 4302 acides aminés possédant un court domaine intracellulaire incluant un motif coiled-coil impliqué dans l’interaction entre PC-1 et PC-2 in-vitro. L’importance du coiled-coil est démontrée par des mutations affectant spécifiquement ce motif chez des patients PKRAD. Le mécanisme pathogénétique responsable de la PKRAD est indéterminé. Chez la souris, la PKRAD se développe suite à l’ablation (Pkd1-/-) ou lors de la surexpression (SBPkd1TAG) de Pkd1, ce qui suggère un effet de dosage. Des anomalies ciliaires sont aussi souvent associées à PKRAD. Mon objectif était de déterminer in-vivo le mécanisme pathogénétique de la polycystine-1 dans le développement des symptômes PKRAD rénaux et extrarénaux et plus spécifiquement, le rôle du motif coiled-coil dans le mécanisme de kystogenèse. Pour ce faire, nous avons généré deux constructions, Pkd1 sauvage (Pkd1TAG) et Pkd1 tronquée de son motif coiled-coil (Pkd1ΔCoiled-coil), par recombinaison homologue à partir du BAC-Pkd1 sauvage comprenant la séquence murine entière de Pkd1. Trois lignées de souris Pkd1TAG générées par microinjection démontrent un niveau d’expression de Pkd1 qui corrèle avec le nombre de copie du transgène (2, 5 et 15 copies). Les souris Pkd1TAG reproduisent la PKRAD en développant des kystes rénaux dans toutes les parties du néphron et des cils primaires plus longs que les contrôles non transgéniques. Les analyses physiologiques supportent que les souris Pkd1TAG développent une insuffisance rénale et démontrent une augmentation du volume urinaire de même qu’une diminution de l’osmolalité, de la créatinine et des protéines urinaires. De plus, les souris Pkd1TAG développent des kystes hépatiques, des anomalies cardiaques associées à des dépôts de calcium et des anévrismes cérébraux. La sévérité du phénotype augmente avec l’expression de Pkd1 appuyant l’hypothèse d’un mécanisme de dosage. Nous avons aussi déterminé que l’expression du transgène Pkd1TAG complémente le phénotype létal-embryonnaire des souris Pkd1-/-. D’autre part, nous avons générés 4 lignées de souris Pkd1ΔCoiled-coil (2 et 15 copies du transgène) dont le nombre de copies corrèle avec le niveau d’expression du transgène. Ces souris Pkd1ΔCoiled-coil, contrairement aux Pkd1TAG de même âge, ne développent pas de kystes et possèdent des cils primaires de longueur normale. Afin d’évaluer le rôle du motif coiled-coil en absence de polycystine-1 endogène, nous avons croisé les souris Pkd1ΔCoiled-coil avec les souris Pkd1-/-. Contrairement aux souris Pkd1-/- qui meurent in-utéro, les souris Pkd1ΔCoiled-coil; Pkd1-/- survivent ~10 à 14 jours après la naissance. Elles démontrent des kystes rénaux et pancréatiques sévères, un retard de croissance et des anomalies pulmonaires. Tous les segments du néphron sont affectés. Mon projet démontre que la surexpression de Pkd1 est un mécanisme pathogénique de la PKRAD tant au niveau rénal qu’extrarénal. De plus, il démontre que le motif coiled-coil est un élément déterminant dans la kystogenèse/PKRAD in-vivo.

Mutations in a NIMA-related kinase gene, Nek1, cause pleiotropic effects including a progressive polycystic kidney disease in mice

We previously have described a mouse model for polycystic kidney disease (PKD) caused by either of two mutations, kat or kat2J, that map to the same locus on chromosome 8. The homozygous mutant animals have a latent onset, slowly progressing form of PKD with renal pathology similar to the human autosomal-dominant PKD. In addition, the mutant animals show pleiotropic effects that include facial dysmorphism, dwarfing, male sterility, anemia, and cystic choroid plexus. We previously fine-mapped the kat2J mutation to a genetic distance of 0.28 ± 0.12 centimorgan between D8Mit128 and D8Mit129. To identify the underlying molecular defect in this locus, we constructed an integrated genetic and physical map of the critical region surrounding the kat2J mutation. Cloning and expression analysis of the transcribed sequences from this region identified Nek1, a NIMA (never in mitosis A)-related kinase as a candidate gene. Further analysis of the Nek1 gene from both kat/kat and kat2J/kat2J mutant animals identified a partial internal deletion and a single-base insertion as the molecular basis for these mutations. The complex pleiotropic phenotypes seen in the homozygous mutant animals suggest that the NEK1 protein participates in different signaling pathways to regulate diverse cellular processes. Our findings identify a previously unsuspected role for Nek1 in the kidney and open a new avenue for studying cystogenesis and identifying possible modes of therapy.