Design, synthesis and photovoltaic properties of some thiophene-based conjugated polymers for organic solar cells

The current issue of the resource of energy combined with the tendency to give a green footprint to our lifestyle have prompted the research to focus the attention on alternative sources with great strides in the optimization of polymeric photovoltaic devices. The research work described in this dissertation consists in the study of different semiconducting π-conjugated materials based on polythiophenes (Chapter I). In detail, the GRIM polymerization was deepened defining the synthetic conditions to obtain regioregular poly(3-alkylthiophene) (Chapter II). Since the use of symmetrical monomers functionalized with oxygen atom(s) allows to adopt easy synthesis leading to performing materials, disubstituted poly(3,4-dialkoxythiophene)s were successfully prepared, characterized and tested as photoactive materials in solar cells (Chapter III). A “green” resource of energy should be employed through sustainable devices and, for this purpose, the research work was continued on the synthesis of thiophene derivatives soluble in eco-friendly solvents. To make this possible, the photoactive layer was completely tailored starting from the electron-acceptor material. A fullerene derivative soluble in alcohols was successfully synthetized and adopted for the realization of the new devices (Chapter IV). New water/alcohol soluble electron-donor materials with different functional groups were prepared and their properties were compared (Chapter V). Once found the best ionic functional group, a new double-cable material was synthetized optimizing the surface area between the different materials (Chapter VI). Finally, other water/alcohol soluble materials were synthetized, characterized and used as cathode interlayers in eco-friendly devices (Chapter VII). In this work, all prepared materials were characterized by spectroscopy analyses, gel permeation chromatography and thermal analyses. Cyclic voltammetry, X-ray diffraction, atomic force microscopy and external quantum efficiency were used to investigate some peculiar aspects.

Synthesis, characterization and chemical sensor application of conducting polymers

Polymeric materials that conduct electricity are highly interesting for fundamental studies and beneficial for modern applications in e.g. solar cells, organic field effect transistors (OFETs) as well as in chemical and bio‐sensing. Therefore, it is important to characterize this class of materials with a wide variety of methods. This work summarizes the use of electrochemistry also in combination with spectroscopic methods in synthesis and characterization of electrically conducting polymers and other π‐conjugated systems. The materials studied in this work are intended for organic electronic devices and chemical sensors. Additionally, an important part of the presented work, concerns rational approaches to the development of water‐based inks containing conducting particles. Electrochemical synthesis and electroactivity of conducting polymers can be greatly enhanced in room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) in comparison to conventional electrolytes. Therefore, poly(para‐phyenylene) (PPP) was electrochemically synthesized in the two representative RTILs: bmimPF6 and bmiTf2N (imidazolium and pyrrolidinium‐based salts, respectively). It was found that the electrochemical synthesis of PPP was significantly enhanced in bmimPF6. Additionally, the results from doping studies of PPP films indicate improved electroactivity in bmimPF6 during oxidation (p‐doping) and in bmiTf2N in the case of reduction (n‐doping). These findings were supported by in situ infrared spectroscopy studies. Conducting poly(benzimidazobenzophenanthroline) (BBL) is a material which can provide relatively high field‐effect mobility of charge carriers in OFET devices. The main disadvantage of this n‐type semiconductor is its limited processability. Therefore in this work BBL was functionalized with poly(ethylene oxide) PEO, varying the length of side chains enabling water dispersions of the studied polymer. It was found that functionalization did not distract the electrochemical activity of the BBL backbone while the processability was improved significantly in comparison to conventional BBL. Another objective was to study highly processable poly(3,4‐ethylenedioxythiophene) poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) water‐based inks for controlled patterning scaled‐down to nearly a nanodomain with the intention to fabricate various chemical sensors. Developed PEDOT:PSS inks greatly improved printing of nanoarrays and with further modification with quaternary ammonium cations enabled fabrication of PEDOT:PSS‐based chemical sensors for lead (II) ions with enhanced adhesion and stability in aqueous environments. This opens new possibilities for development of PEDOT:PSS films that can be used in bio‐related applications. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a broad group of π‐conjugated materials consisting of aromatic rings in the range from naphthalene to even hundred rings in one molecule. The research on this type of materials is intriguing, due to their interesting optical properties and resemblance of graphene. The objective was to use electrochemical synthesis to yield relatively large PAHs and fabricate electroactive films that could be used as template material in chemical sensors. Spectroscopic, electrochemical and electrical investigations evidence formation of highly stable films with fast redox response, consisting of molecules with 40 to 60 carbon atoms. Additionally, this approach in synthesis, starting from relatively small PAH molecules was successfully used in chemical sensor for lead (II).

Synthèse de nouveaux matériaux conducteurs comportant des unités aromatiques conjuguées et analyse de leurs propriétés physico-chimiques

Les matériaux conjugués ont fait l’objet de beaucoup de recherches durant les dernières années. Les nouveaux matériaux présentent des propriétés intéressantes que ce soit au niveau optique, électrique, mécanique ou même les trois en même temps. La synthèse reste la difficulté principale dans la fabrication de dispositifs électroniques. Les méthodes utilisées pour y parvenir sont l’électropolymérisation, le couplage de Suzuki ou de Wittig. Ces techniques comportent encore de nombreuses contraintes et s’avèrent difficilement réalisables à grande échelle. Les thiophènes, les pyrroles et les furanes ont démontré une bonne conductibilité et une bande de conduction basse due à une conjugaison accrue. L’objectif ici est de synthétiser des oligomères principalement composés de thiophènes dans le but d’en caractériser les propriétés spectroscopiques, électrochimiques et de conduction. La synthèse est souvent l’étape délicate de la fabrication de matériaux conjugués. Nous présentons ici une méthode de synthèse simple par modules avec des unités hétérocycliques. Les modules complémentaires sont attachés par condensation entre un aldéhyde et une amine menant à la formation d’un lien robuste, l’azomethine. Les résultats des propriétés photophysiques et électrochimiques de ces matériaux conjugués seront présentés. En ayant recours à différents groupes électrodonneurs et électroaccepteurs, en variant le degré de conjugaison ou en utilisant différents hétérocycles, les propriétés spectroscopiques, électrochimiques et de bande de conduction peuvent être adaptées à volonté, ce qui en fait des matériaux aux propriétés modelables. Ces nouvelles molécules seront analysées pour en déceler les propriétés recherchées dans la fabrication d’OLED. Nous explorerons les domaines de l’oxidation electrochimique réversible et de la polymérisation menant à la fabrication de quelques prototypes simples.

Synthèse et caractérisation photophysique et électrochimique d'une nouvelle classe de composés à base de fluorène et 2-thiophène

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal

Développement de composés conjugués en étoile de première génération incluant des liens azométhines et études électrochimiques et photophysiques

Les matériaux conjugués sont de nos jours très utilisés dans de nombreuses applications ainsi qu’en recherche. L’enchainement des liaisons π-σ-π permet la délocalisation des électrons et d’obtenir différentes propriétés comme la conduction, la fluorescence, la chélation, etc. Ainsi, de nombreux dispositifs utilisent ces caractéristiques en vue d’obtenir de nouveaux matériaux révolutionnaires comme les cellules solaires, les transistors à effet de champs, les dispositifs électrochromiques, etc.. Les dispositifs électrochromiques font partie des dispositifs en vogue. Ils sont capables de changer de couleur selon le potentiel électrique appliqué. Ils se distinguent par la simplicité du mode de conception et ils ne nécessitent pas de fonctionner dans des conditions drastiques comme une atmosphère contrôlée. Ces dispositifs sont actuellement utilisés et commercialisés comme fenêtre intelligente, camouflage, papier électronique et carte de visite personnalisée pour n’en nommer que quelques-uns. Deux propriétés sont essentielles pour que des composés puissent être utilisés dans ces familles de dispositifs : la réversibilité à l’oxydation et la stabilité à l’air et à la lumière. Dans le groupe de recherche du professeur W.G. Skene, l’axe principal de recherche est basé sur la conception de nouveaux matériaux conducteurs comportant des liaisons azométhines. Les principaux matériaux étudiés sont des dérivés de thiophènes et de fluorènes. De précédents résultats ont montré que plusieurs produits issus de la réaction de condensation entre les dérivés du 2,5-diaminothiophène et de thiophènes diformylés menaient à des produits possédant d’excellentes propriétés photophysiques et électrochimiques. C’est en partant de ces résultats encourageants qu’il a été choisi de synthétiser une nouvelle famille de produits avec un nouveau substrat fonctionnalisé. Ce dernier possède d’excellentes propriétés électrochimiques et photophysiques : la triphénylamine. Deux familles de produits ont été synthétisées qui possèdent toutes comme cœur une triphénylamine. Cette dernière a été modifiée de façon à créer une, deux ou trois liaisons azométhines avec différents thiophènes. Deux dérivés du thiophène ont été choisis afin d’étudier l’influence des groupements donneurs et accepteurs sur ces nouveaux types de composés encore jamais étudiés. Les résultats des différentes synthèses et analyses ont été effectués par RMN, spectrométrie de masse, spectrométrie d’absorbance UV-Visible, fluorescence et voltampérométrie cyclique sont rapportées dans le présent recueil.

Développement de nouveaux matériaux conjugués aux propriétés opto-électroniques modulables : de l’électrochromisme à la fluorescence.

La thèse est divisée en deux parties, soit le texte principal et les annexes afin d'alléger la taille des documents.

Synthesis, multiscale-multiphase characterization and applications of thiophene-based biohybrids

Biohybrid derivatives of π-conjugated materials are emerging as powerful tools to study biological events through the (opto)electronic variations of the π-conjugated moieties, as well as to direct and govern the self-assembly properties of the organic materials through the organization principles of the bio component. So far, very few examples of thiophene-based biohybrids have been reported. The aim of this Ph. D thesis has been the development of oligothiophene-oligonucleotide hybrid derivatives as tools, on one side, to detect DNA hybridisation events and, on the other, as model compounds to investigate thiophene-nucleobase interactions in the solid state. To obtain oligothiophene bioconjugates with the required high level of purity, we first developed new synthetic ecofriendly protocols for the synthesis of thiophene oligomers. Our innovative heterogeneous Suzuki coupling methodology, carried out in EtOH/water or isopropanol under microwave irradiation, allowed us to obtain alkyl substituted oligothiophenes and thiophene based co-oligomers in high yields and very short reaction times, free from residual metals and with improved film forming properties. These methodologies were subsequently applied in the synthesis of oligothiophene-oligonucleotide conjugates. Oligothiophene-5-labeled deoxyuridines were synthesized and incorporated into 19-meric oligonucletide sequences. We showed that the oligothiophene-labeled oligonucletide sequences obtained can be used as probes to detect a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in complementary DNA target sequences. In fact, all the probes showed marked variations in emission intensity upon hybridization with a complementary target sequence. The observed variations in emitted light were comparable or even superior to those reported in similar studies, showing that the biohybrids can potentially be useful to develop biosensors for the detection of DNA mismatches. Finally, water-soluble, photoluminescent and electroactive dinucleotide-hybrid derivatives of quaterthiophene and quinquethiophene were synthesized. By means of a combination of spectroscopy and microscopy techniques, electrical characterizations, microfluidic measurements and theoretical calculations, we were able to demonstrate that the self-assembly modalities of the biohybrids in thin films are driven by the interplay of intra and intermolecular interactions in which the π-stacking between the oligothiophene and nucleotide bases plays a major role.

Self-Assembled Monolayers (SAMs) in Organic Field-Effect Transistors

Organic printed electronics is attracting an ever-growing interest in the last decades because of its impressive breakthroughs concerning the chemical design of π-conjugated materials and their processing. This has an impact on novel applications, such as flexible-large-area displays, low- cost printable circuits, plastic solar cells and lab-on-a-chip devices. The organic field-effect transistor (OFET) relies on a thin film of organic semiconductor that bridges source and drain electrodes. Since its first discovery in the 80s, intensive research activities were deployed in order to control the chemico-physical properties of these electronic devices and consequently their charge. Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) are a versatile tool for tuning the properties of metallic, semi-conducting, and insulating surfaces. Within this context, OFETs represent reliable instruments for measuring the electrical properties of the SAMs in a Metal/SAM/OS junction. Our experimental approach, named Charge Injection Organic-Gauge (CIOG), uses OTFT in a charge-injection controlled regime. The CIOG sensitivity has been extensively demonstrated on different homologous self-assembling molecules that differ in either chain length or in anchor/terminal group. One of the latest applications of organic electronics is the so-called “bio-electronics” that makes use of electronic devices to encompass interests of the medical science, such as biosensors, biotransducers etc… As a result, thee second part of this thesis deals with the realization of an electronic transducer based on an Organic Field-Effect Transistor operating in aqueous media. Here, the conventional bottom gate/bottom contact configuration is replaced by top gate architecture with the electrolyte that ensures electrical contact between the top gold electrode and the semiconductor layer. This configuration is named Electrolyte-Gated Field-Effect Transistor (EGOFET). The functionalization of the top electrode is the sensing core of the device allowing the detection of dopamine as well as of protein biomarkers with ultra-low sensitivity.

Polymerisation in perfluorierter Emulsion

Die vorliegende Arbeit behandelt die Polymerisation in nicht-wässrigen Emulsionen – bestehend aus einem perfluorierten Solvens und einem Kohlenwasserstoff - unter Einsatz verschiedener Monomere, Katalysatoren und Polymeristionsmethoden zur Generierung von Polymerpartikeln verschiedenster Art. Es wurde gezeigt, dass in diesen inerten Medien zahlreiche Methoden zur Polymererzeugung unter gleichzeitiger Morphologiekontrolle eingesetzt werden können, die in konventionellen wässrigen, heterophasischen Systemen versagen.rnrnAusgangspunkt war die literaturbekannte Metallocen-katalysierte Synthese von Polyethylen (PE)- und Polypropylen (PP)-Nanopartikeln in perfluorierter Emulsion in Gegenwart hochmolekularer Blockcopolymere als Stabilisierungsagens. Mithilfe kinetischer Untersuchungen hinsichtlich der PE-Synthese wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit ein Modell entwickelt, welches den Diffusionsweg eines gasförmigen Monomers über die verschiedenen Phasengrenzen hinweg zum aktiven katalytischen Zentrum in der dispergierten Phase beschreibt. Ferner konnte die Diffusions- und Reaktionsbestimmtheit der Reaktion in Abhängigkeit verschiedener Reaktionsparameter nachgewiesen sowie ein tieferer Einblick über den Ort der Polymerisation in den heterophasischen Systemen erhalten werden.rnrnDie so gewonnenen Erkenntnisse wurden für die erfolgreiche Synthese von Poly(ethylen-1-hexen)-Copolymeren in perfluorierter Emulsion genutzt, wobei der Comonomergehalt im resultierenden Polymer über einen breiten Bereich variiert werden konnte. Neben der Homo- und Copolymerisation von Polyolefinen wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit weiter gezeigt, dass die heterogenen Fluide zum Aufbau komplexerer Morphologien wie Kern-Schale-Nanopartikeln genutzt werden können; so gelangte man zu Partikeln mit Kernen aus isotaktischem PP, ummantelt von „weichem“ Poly(n-butylacrylat).rnrnEin weiterer Fokus dieser Arbeit lag auf der Erweiterung der Anwendungsmöglichkeiten der perfluorierten Emulsionen, und so wurde bspw. der Zugang zu Polymerdispersionen aus konjugierten Materialien mit Partikeldurchmessern von 70-100 nm mittels Cyclopolymerisation eröffnet. Ferner konnten als bioverträgliche und biologisch abbaubare Materialien Partikel aus epsilon-Caprolacton in koordinativ-anionischer Polymerisation gewonnen werden. Im Zuge dessen wurden Emulgatoren entwickelt, die den Einsatz polarer Monomere in perfluorierter Emulsion erlauben.rnrnSchlussendlich konnten mittels trifunktioneller Polymere mit lipophilen und fluorophilen Gruppen sowie Lewis-basischen Ankergruppen Ag- und Cu-Partikel dergestalt oberflächenmodifiziert werden, dass ein homogenes Einbetten in eine perfluorierte Matrix möglich war, was antibakterielle perfluorierte Werkstoffe - erwiesen an E. coli - lieferte.

Novel organic semiconductors and their applications in electronics

The main goals of this thesis were the design, synthesis, and characterization of novel organic semiconductors, together with their applications in electronics, such as OFETs, OPVs, and OLEDs. The results can be summarized as follows:rn1. In chapter II, two novel angular n-type molecules were presented. Their different alkyl chains play a pivotal role in the molecular orientation relative to surface. One molecule with longer branched chains is tilted with respect to the substrate, thereby resulting in poor device performance, while the other adopt an edge-on orientation with an OFET electron mobility of 0.01 cm2 V-1 s-1.rn2. In chapter III, fused bis-benzothiadiazoles with different molecular geometries, namely linear benzoquinone-fused bis(benzothiadiazole) and V-shaped sulfone-fused bis(benzothiadiazole), were shown. This work not only contributes to the diversity of electron acceptors based on bis-benzothiadiazole moieties, but also highlights the important role of molecular shape for the solid-state packing of organic conjugated materials. In chapter IV, we demonstrated the synthesis of layered acceptors via dimerization of thiadiazole end-capped acenes. Interestingly, they feature huge differences in their photophysical properties. One compound showed a new strong emission in the near-infrared region introduced by the aggregation effect. The planosymmetric compound featured intramolecular excimer (IEE) fluorescence in solution. rn3. In chapter V and VI, we have demonstrated the synthesis of novel spiro-bifluorene based asymmetric and symmetric cruciform electron acceptors with dicyanovinylene substitutions. The solar cells based on PTB7:asymmetric acceptor yields the highest PCE of 0.80%. Such results demonstrate for the first time that dicyanovinylene substituted acceptor could be an alternative to fullerene-based acceptors. rn4. In chapter VII, two novel blue-emitting compounds were shown, which consist of dihydroindenofluorenyl units and ladder-type poly-p-phenylene groups, respectively. The two novel cruciform rigid compounds present not only excellent thermal and electrochemical stability but also high PLQYs. Through analysis of their triplet energy levels, both molecules can be served as hosts for other normal fluorescent or phosphorescent materials.rn

Conjugated semiconducting organic materials for electronic applications

Since conjugated polymers, i.e. polymers with spatially extended pi-bonding system have offered unique physical properties, unobtainable for conventional polymers, significant research efforts directed to better understanding of their chemistry, physics and engineering have been undertaken in the past two and half decades. In this thesis we discuss the synthesis, characterisation and investigation of conjugated semiconducting organic materials for electronic applications. Owing to the versatile properties of metal-organic hybrid materials, there is significant promise that these materials can find use in optical or electronic devices in the future. In addressing this issue, the synthesis of bisthiazol-2-yl-amine (BTA) based polymers is attempted and their metallation is investigated. The focus of this work has been to examine whether the introduction of coordinating metal ions onto the polymer backbone can enhance the conductivity of the material. These studies can provide a basis for understanding the photophysical properties of metal-organic polymers based on BTA. In their neutral (undoped) form conjugated polymers are semiconductors and can be used as active components of plastics electronics such as polymer light-emitting diodes, polymer lasers, photovoltaic cells, field-effect transistors, etc. Toward this goal, it is an objective of the study to synthesize and characterize new classes of luminescent polymeric materials based on anthracene and phenanthrene moieties. A series of materials based on polyphenylenes and poly(phenyleneethynylene)s with 9,10-anthrylene subunits are not only presented but the synthesis and characterization of step-ladder and ladder poly(p-phenylene-alt-anthrylene)s containing 9,10-anthrylene building groups within the main chain are also explored. In a separate work, a series of soluble poly-2,7- and 3,6-phenanthrylenes are synthesized. This can enable us to do a systematic investigation into the optical and electronic properties of PPP-like versus PPV-like. Besides, the self-organization of 3,6-linked macrocyclic triphenanthrylene has been investigated by 2D wide-angle X-ray scattering experiments performed on extruded filaments in solution and in the bulk. Additionally, from the concept that donor-acceptor materials can induce efficient electron transfer, the covalent incorporation of perylene tetracarboxydiimide (PDI) into one block of a poly(2,7-carbazole) (PCz)-based diblock copolymer and 2,5-pyrrole based on push-pull type material are achieved respectively.

Modelling the influence of diradical character and aggregation on conjugated molecular materials

Molecular materials are made by the assembly of specifically designed molecules to obtain bulk structures with desired solid-state properties, enabling the development of materials with tunable chemical and physical properties. These properties result from the interplay of intra-molecular constituents and weak intermolecular interactions. Thus, small changes in individual molecular and electronic structure can substantially change the properties of the material in bulk. The purpose of this dissertation is, thus, to discuss and to contribute to the structure-property relationships governing the electronic, optical and charge transport properties of organic molecular materials through theoretical and computational studies. In particular, the main focus is on the interplay of intra-molecular properties and inter-molecular interactions in organic molecular materials. In my three-years of research activity, I have focused on three major areas: 1) the investigation of isolated-molecule properties for the class of conjugated chromophores displaying diradical character which are building blocks for promising functional materials; 2) the determination of intra- and intermolecular parameters governing charge transport in molecular materials and, 3) the development and application of diabatization procedures for the analysis of exciton states in molecular aggregates. The properties of diradicaloids are extensively studied both regarding their ground state (diradical character, aromatic vs quinoidal structures, spin dynamics, etc.) and the low-lying singlet excited states including the elusive double-exciton state. The efficiency of charge transport, for specific classes of organic semiconductors (including diradicaloids), is investigated by combining the effects of intra-molecular reorganization energy, inter-molecular electronic coupling and crystal packing. Finally, protocols aimed at unravelling the nature of exciton states are introduced and applied to different molecular aggregates. The role of intermolecular interactions and charge transfer contributions in determining the exciton state character and in modulating the H- to J- aggregation is also highlighted.

Novel blue emitters based on pi-conjugated block copolymers

A series of new phenyl-based conjugated copolymers has been synthesized and investigated by vibrational and photoluminescence spectroscopy (PL). The materials are: poly( 1,4-phenylene-alt-3,6-pyridazine) (COP-PIR), poly(9,9-dioctylfluorene)-co-quaterphenylene (COP-PPP) and poly[(1,4-phenylene-alt-3,6-pyridazine)-co-(1,4-phenylene-alt-9,9-dioctylfluorene)] (COP-PIR-FLUOR), with 3.5% of fluorene. COP-PPP and COP-PIR-FLUOR have high fluorescence quantum yields in solution. Infrared and Raman spectra were used to check the chemical structure of the compounds. The copolymers exhibit blue emission ranging front 2.8 to 3.6 eV when excited at E(exc)=4.13 eV. Stokes-shift Values were estimated on pristine samples in their condensed state from steady-state PL-emission and PL-excitation spectra. They suggest a difference in the torsional angle between the molecular configuration of the polymer blocks at the absorption and PL transitions and also in the photoexcitation diffusion. Additionally, the time-resolved PL of these materials has been investigated by using 100 fs laser pulses at E(exc)=4.64 eV and a streak camera. Results show very fast biexponential kinetics for the two fluorene-based polymers with decay times below 300 ps indicating both intramolecular, fast radiative recombination and migration of photogenerated electron-hole pairs. By contrast, the PL of COP-PIR is less intense and longer lived, indicating that excitons are confined to the chains in this polymer. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

A new approach to the synthesis of conjugated polymer-nanocrystal composites for heterojunction optoelectronics

We report a simple one pot process for the preparation of lead sulfide (PbS) nanocrystals in the conjugated polymer poly (2-methoxy-5-(2'-ethyl-hexyloxy)-p-phenylene vinylene) (MEH-PPV), and we demonstrate electronic coupling between the two components.