Evaluación de la exposición a solventes orgánicos en pintores de carros de la ciudad de Bogotá

Introducción. Los pintores de vehículos automotores están expuestos a solventes puros o mezclas de estos, los cuales se han asociado con efectos neurológicos y mutacarcinogénicos. Materiales y Métodos. Se realizó un estudio descriptivo de corte transversal para caracterizar las condiciones de salud y trabajo de individuos expuestos a solventes orgánicos en talleres de lámina y pintura en Bogotá. Se comparó un grupo de expuestos a solventes orgánicos con un grupo no expuestos. Se determinaron concentraciones de benceno, tolueno y xileno (BTX) en aire, se aplicó una encuesta individual y se midieron en orina, los ácidos fenil mercaptúrico, hipúrico, orto-para metilhipúrico como metabolitos de benceno, tolueno y xileno. Los resultados de las mediciones y de la encuesta se correlacionaron para establecer el panorama de exposición. Resultados: hubo diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre la población expuesta y la población no expuesta a solventes (p = 0,00) para los tres metabolitos de BTX. Se encontraron correlaciones positivas entre el tolueno en aire y ácido hipúrico en orina de los expuestos, (Spearman de 0,82) y entre el xileno en aire y el ácido o-metilhipúrico (Spearman de 0,76). Se encontraron valores de ácido hipúrico por encima de los límites permisibles en 11 2 trabajadores y de ácido p-metilhipúrico en 8 de ellos. No hubo valores para ácido fenilmercapturico fuera de límite. Discusión: los pintores de carros se encuentran expuestos a niveles altos de solventes orgánicos en sus sitios de trabajo y no cuentan con condiciones adecuadas de higiene y seguridad industrial para realizar sus labores.

Insect and bird interactions

This unique book is the first of its kind to explore the diversity of interactions between insects and birds. A group of international experts enthusiastically agreed to contribute to the four sections of the book following the success of an Entomological Club Conference on Insect and Bird Interactions. The first section covers population management issues, discussing effects on birds highly relevant to the planting of large areas of GM crops, new opportunities for increasing biodiversity in farming landscapes, and the novel aspect of managing insects by exploiting birds as biological control agents. This is followed by a section discussing the effects of insecticides on bird populations, and includes a contribution from the RSPB, as well as a re-appraisal of the effects of DDT on raptors. Next, the foraging behaviour of birds on insects is discussed, with chapters also on 'warning' coloration in insects and learning by birds. The first chapter in this section is unusual in having been written by an ophthalmologist and covers colour vision in birds, more specifically ultraviolet vision in relation to insect coloration. Finally, the authors look at insects that are parasites of birds or feed on the detritus in nests, and review the ecology and evolution of the co-adaptation of insect ectoparasites with birds. Insect and Bird Interactions is unparalleled in scope and coverage and will be of interest to entomologists, ornithologists, and ecologists alike.

Chromatic and luminance losses with multiple sclerosis and optic neuritis measured using dynamic random luminance contrast noise

We measured thresholds for detecting changes in colour and in luminance contrast in observers with multiple sclerosis (MS) and/or optic neuritis (ON) to determine whether reduced sensitivity occurs principally in red-green or blue-yellow second-stage chromatic channels or in an achromatic channel. Colour thresholds for the observers with MS/ON were higher in the red-green direction than in the blue-yellow direction, indicating greater levels of red-green loss than blue-yellow loss. Achromatic thresholds were raised less than either red-green or blue-yellow thresholds, showing less luminance-contrast loss than chromatic loss. With the MS/ON observers, blue-yellow and red-green thresholds were positively correlated but increasing impairment was associated with more rapid changes in red-green thresholds than blue-yellow thresholds. These findings indicate that demyelinating disease selectively reduces sensitivity to colour vision over luminance vision and red-green colours over blue-yellow colours.

Mimicry and the eye of the beholder

Recent experiments (Dittrich et al. (Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 251, 195 (1993))) suggest that pigeon perception of wasp mimicry by hoverflies is similar to that of humans and of computer-based image matching. However, the relations are nonlinear and may explain why some species are abundant despite their being poor mimics to the human eye. We suggest that these discrepancies between pigeon and human categorization may lie in the differences between avian and primate colour vision. As pigeon categorization and computer image analysis were both assessed by using colour slides designed for human vision, they lacked the natural colour information available to wild birds, in particular that from ultraviolet (uv) wavelengths.

Visual pigments, cone oil droplets and ocular media in four species of estrildid finch

A microspectrophotometric study was conducted on the retinal photoreceptors of four species of bird: cut-throat finches (Amadina fasciata), gouldian finches (Erythrura gouldiae), white-headed munias (Lonchura maja) and plum-headed finches (Neochmia modesta). Spectral characteristics of the photoreceptors in all four species were very similar. Rods contained a medium-wavelength-sensitive visual pigment with a wavelength of maximum absorbance at 502-504 nm. Four spectrally distinct types of single cone contained a visual pigment with wavelength of maximum absorbance at either 370-373 nm (ultraviolet-sensitive), 440-447 nm (short-wavelength-sensitive); 500 nm (medium-wavelength-sensitive) or 562-565 nm (long-wavelength-sensitive). Oil droplets in the ultraviolet-sensitive single cones showed no detectable absorption between 330 nm and 800 nm. Oil droplets in the short-, medium-, and long-wavelength-sensitive single cones had cut-off wavelengths at 415-423 nm, 510-520 nm and 567-575 nm, respectively. Double cones contained the visual pigment with wavelength of maximum absorbance at 562-565 nm observed in long-wavelength-sensitive single cones. Only the principal member of the double cone pair contained an oil droplet (P-type, cut-off wavelength at 414-489 nm depending on species and retinal location). Spectral transmittance of the intact ocular media of each species was measured along the optic axis. Wavelengths of 0.5 transmittance for all species were very similar (316-318 nm).

Visual pigments, oil droplets, ocular media and cone photoreceptor distribution in two species of passerine bird: the blue tit (Parus caeruleus L.) and the blackbird (Turdus merula L.)

The spectral absorption characteristics of the retinal photoreceptors of the blue tit (Pal trs caeruleus) and blackbird (Turdus merula) were investigated using microspectrophotometry. The retinae of both species contained rods, double cones and four spectrally distinct types of single cone. Whilst the visual pigments and cone oil droplets in the other receptor types are very similar in both species, the wavelength of maximum sensitivity (lambda(max)) of long-wavelength-sensitive single and double cone visual pigment occurs at a shorter wavelength (557 nm) in the blackbird than in the blue tit (563 nm). Oil droplets located in the long-wavelength-sensitive-single cones of both species cut off wavelengths below 570-573 nm, theoretically shifting cone peak spectral sensitivity some 40 nm towards the long-wavelength end of the spectrum. This raises the possibility that the precise lambda(max) of the long-wavelength-sensitive visual pigment is optimised for the visual function of the double cones. The distribution of cone photoreceptors across the retina, determined using conventional light and fluorescence microscopy also varies between the two species and may reflect differences in their visual ecology.

Is the ultraviolet waveband a special communication channel in avian mate choice?

There is growing evidence that ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths play an important role in avian mate choice. One of the first experiments to support this idea showed that female zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata) prefer UV-reflecting males to males whose ultraviolet reflection has been removed. The effect was very strong despite little or no UV reflection from several plumage areas. However, it is not clear how the importance of the UV waveband compares to other regions of the bird-visible spectrum. We tested whether the response of female zebra finches to the removal of male UV reflection is greater than to the removal of other wavebands. We presented females with a choice of males whose appearance was manipulated using coloured filters. The filters removed single blocks of the avian visible spectrum corresponding closely to the spectral sensitivities of each of the zebra finch's single cone classes. This resulted in males that effectively had no UV (UV-), no short-wave (SW-), no medium-wave (MW-) or no long-wave (LW-) plumage reflection. Females preferred UV- and SW- males. LW- and MW- males were least preferred, suggesting that female zebra finches show the greatest response to the removal of longer wavelengths. Quantal catches of the single cone types viewing body areas of the male zebra finch are presented for each treatment. Our study suggests it is important to consider the role of the UV waveband in avian mate choice in conjunction with the rest of the avian visible spectrum.

Tetrachromacy, oil droplets and bird plumage colours

There is a growing body of data on avian eyes, including measurements of visual pigment and oil droplet spectral absorption, and of receptor densities and their distributions across the retina. These data are sufficient to predict psychophysical colour discrimination thresholds for light-adapted eyes, and hence provide a basis for relating eye design to visual needs. We examine the advantages of coloured oil droplets, UV vision and tetrachromacy for discriminating a diverse set of avian plumage spectra under natural illumination. Discriminability is enhanced both by tetrachromacy and coloured oil droplets. Oil droplets may also improve colour constancy. Comparison of the performance of a pigeon's eye, where the shortest wavelength receptor peak is at 410 nm, with that of the passerine Leiothrix, where the ultraviolet-sensitive peak is at 365 nm, generally shows a small advantage to the latter, but this advantage depends critically on the noise level in the sensitivity mechanism and on the set of spectra being viewed.

The evolution of plumage colouration in parrots : a review

The plumages of parrots provide some of the most striking colouration in nature.We summarise the diversity of mechanisms producing colour in parrots and the current evidence for the adaptive significance of variation in the colour of parrot plumages. Only recently have detailed studies begun to unravel the mechanisms of their colour-production and colour vision systems. Parrots produce much of their plumage colouration through a unique suite of pigments (psittacofulvins), or through a feather tissue nanostructure that results in coherent scattering of light, or a combination of the two (producing green). Psittacofulvins are found nowhere else in nature, and may even generate fluorescence in many parrot species.Compared with other avian taxa, the adaptive significance of parrot plumage colouration remains poorly understood, although some studies suggest that plumage colouration may form important sexual signals and may be used in mate-choice by several species. There is evidence to suggest that parrot colouration can be subject to both environmental and genetic control. We emphasise that parrots offer a distinctive and useful colouration system for further study. Further research is required to unravel how the dramatic colour patterns of parrots evolved, and what roles colour signals may play in the life histories of parrots.

Absorbance of retinal oil droplets of the budgerigar : sex, spatial and plumage morph-related variation

Intraspecific variation in photoreceptor physiology is known in several vertebrate taxa, but is currently unknown in birds, despite many avian traits varying intraspecifically, and avian visual ecology encompassing a wide range of environments and visual stimuli, which might influence spectral sensitivity. Avian retinal photoreceptors contain light absorbing carotenoid-rich oil droplets that affect vision. Carotenoids are also important plumage components. However, our understanding of the regulation of carotenoids in oil droplets remains rudimentary. Among birds, Melopsittacus undulatus has probably the best-studied colour vision, shows profound intraspecific variation in plumage colour, and increased plasma carotenoids during moult. We used microspectrophotometry to determine whether a relationship exists between oil droplet carotenoid concentration and plumage pigmentation, and tested for sex and spatial variation in droplet absorbance across the retina. Absorbance of one variety of P-type droplets was higher in males. No relationship was found between droplet absorbance and plumage colour. We found a spatial pattern of droplets absorbance across the retina that matched a pattern found in another parrot, and other avian species. Our work provides insights into the development and maintenance of retinal oil droplets and suggests a common mechanism and function for carotenoid deposition in the retina across bird species.

Cone contrast influence on components of the pattern onset/offset VECP

Transient visual evoked cortical potentials (VECP) were recorded from the scalp of healthy normal trichromats (n = 12). VECPs were elicited by onset/offset presentation of patterned stimuli of two kinds: isochromatic luminance-modulated, and equiluminant red-green modulated, sine wave gratings. The amplitude and latency of the major onset components of the onset/offset VECP were measured and plotted as a function of the logarithm of pooled cone contrast. The early onset components, achromatic C1 and chromatic N1, increase linearly with log contrast, but N1 has a higher contrast gain than C1. The late onset components, achromatic C2 and chromatic N2, have similar contrast gain, and similar response as a function of contrast level: both increase in the low-to-medium range of contrasts and saturate at high contrast levels. In the range of pooled cone contrast tested, C1 and N1 show similar latencies, whilst C2 shows shorter latencies than N2. We suggest that C1 and N1 are generated by the same visual mechanism with high red-green contrast gain and low luminance contrast gain, whilst C2 and N2 are generated by different visual mechanisms.

Synaptic circuitry of ganglion cells in the mammalian retina

Before signals of the visual environment are transferred to higher brain areas via the optic nerve, they are processed and filtered in parallel pathways within the retina. In the past a plethora of functionally distinct ganglion cell types responding to certain aspects of the environment, such as direction of movement, contrast and colour have been described. Aim of this thesis was the anatomical investigation of the selectivity in retinal circuits underlying this diversity. For this purpose, mouse and macaque retinae were analysed. OFF-ganglion cells in the mouse retina received their excitatory drive unselectively from all bipolar cell types stratifying within the area of their dendritic trees. Only the input to direction-selective C6 ganglion cells and bistratified D2 ganglion cells appeared to be weighted. In primates the highly specialised midget-system forms a 1:1 connection from red- and green-sensitive cones onto midget bipolar- and ganglion cells, building the substrate for red/green colour vision. Here it was demonstrated that blue-sensitive (S-) cones also contact OFF-midget bipolars and are, thus, potential candidates to transfer blue-OFF signals to M1 intrinsically photosensitive ganglion cells (ipRGCs). M1 cells received glycinergic input from A8 amacrine cells and express GABAA receptors containing subunit alpha 3. M2 cells, in contrast, received less inhibitory input.

Dressurexperimente zum Kontrast- und Farbensehen von Phoca vitulina und Arctocephalus pusillus

Robben sind amphibische marine Säugetiere. Das bedeutet, dass sie zweirnunterschiedliche Lebensräume, Wasser und Land, bewohnen. Ihre sensorischen Systeme müssen auf beide Medien abgestimmt sein. Gerade für das Sehvermögen ist es eine große Herausforderung, sich den zwei optisch unterschiedlichen Medien anzupassen. Deshalb sind Forscher an dem Sehen von marinen Säugern seit dem zwanzigsten Jahrhundert so sehr interessiert. rnBis heute wird kontrovers diskutiert, ob marine Säugetiere Farbe sehen können, da sie durch einen Gendefekt nur einen Zapfentyp besitzen und somit zu den Zapfen-Monochromaten gehören. Dressurexperimente zeigten jedoch, dass Seebären und Seelöwen in der Lage sind grüne und blaue Testfelder von Graustufen zu unterscheiden (Busch & Dücker, 1987; Griebel & Schmid, 1992).rnUm auszuschließen, dass die Tiere ein Farbensehen über die Unterscheidung von Helligkeit vortäuschen, wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit zunächst die Kontrasterkennung untersucht und danach Tests auf Farbensehen durchgeführt. Als Versuchstiere dienten zwei Seehunde (Phoca vitulina) und zwei Südafrikanische Seebären (Arctocephalus pusillus). Alle Versuche wurden unter freien Himmel im Zoo Frankfurt durchgeführt. Den Tieren wurden immer drei Testfelder zur Auswahl geboten: zwei waren gleich und zeigten ein homogenen Hintergrund, das dritte zeigte ein Dreieck auf demselben Hintergrund. Die Tiere wurden auf das Dreieck dressiert. In den Versuchen zum Helligkeitskontrast wurden graue Dreiecke auf grauem Hintergrund verwendet. Das Dreieck wurde nicht erkannt bei einem Luminanz-Kontrast (K= LD/(LD+LH)) zwischen 0,03 und -0,12.rnBeim Test auf Farbensehen wurden die Farben Blau, Grün, Gelb und Orange auf grauem Hintergrund verwendet. Die Testreihen zeigten, dass jedes Tier auch in Bereichen von geringem Helligkeitskontrast hohe Wahlhäufigkeiten auf das farbige Dreieck erzielte und somit eindeutig die Farben Blau, Grün und Gelb sehen konnte. Lediglich bei der Farbe Orange kann keine Aussage zum Farbensehen getroffen werden, da das farbige Dreieck immer dunkler war als der Hintergrund. rnZusammenfassend konnte in dieser Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass Seehunde und Seebären in der Lage sind Farbe zu sehen. Vermutlich beruht diese Fähigkeit auf der Interaktion von Stäbchen und Zapfen. rn

Anosognosia for cerebral achromatopsia--a longitudinal case study

Cerebral achromatopsia is a rare disorder of colour vision caused by bilateral damage to the occipito-temporal cortex. Patients with cerebral achromatopsia are commonly said to suffer due to their disturbed colour sense. Here, we report the case of a patient with cerebral achromatopsia who was initially unaware of his deficit, although three experiments with eye movement recordings demonstrated his severe inability to use colour information in everyday tasks. During two months, the evolution of his colour vision deficit was followed with repeated standardized colour vision tests and eye movement recordings. While his performance continuously improved, he became more and more aware of the deficit. Only after colour vision had almost normalized, his subjective colour sensation was inconspicuous again. The simultaneous occurrence of achromatopsia and the corresponding anosognosia and their parallel recovery suggest that both deficits were due to dysfunction of the same brain region. Consequently, the subjective experience of colour loss in achromatopsia may depend on the residual function of the damaged colour centre.

Distinctive Convergence in Australian Floral Colours Seen Through the Eyes of Australian Birds

We used a colour-space model of avian vision to assess whether a distinctive bird pollination syndrome exists for floral colour among Australian angiosperms. We also used a novel phylogenetically based method to assess whether such a syndrome represents a significant degree of convergent evolution. About half of the 80 species in our sample that attract nectarivorous birds had floral colours in a small, isolated region of colour space characterized by an emphasis on long-wavelength reflection. The distinctiveness of this 'red arm' region was much greater when colours were modelled for violet-sensitive (VS) avian vision than for the ultraviolet-sensitive visual system. Honeyeaters (Meliphagidae) are the dominant avian nectarivores in Australia and have VS vision. Ancestral state reconstructions suggest that 31 lineages evolved into the red arm region, whereas simulations indicate that an average of five or six lineages and a maximum of 22 are likely to have entered in the absence of selection. Thus, significant evolutionary convergence on a distinctive floral colour syndrome for bird pollination has occurred in Australia, although only a subset of bird-pollinated taxa belongs to this syndrome. The visual system of honeyeaters has been the apparent driver of this convergence.