植物群落复杂性与群落结构组建的描述与分析

时间、空间格局的保持和发展及其对种群、群落和生态系统动态的影响是生态学中两个相互关联的基本课题。围绕这个中心议题作者在植物个体、种群、群落各个层次上开展了研究。 1)研究了克隆植物构型及其对资源异质性的响应，给出了描述该连续体的一个指数v：In1/ln刀．（士

克隆植物的分布及其与环境和物种多样性的关系

　　中国植被的1860个样方资料的统计结果表明，克隆植物存在于不同类型的生态系统中，并在大部分生态系统中占有重要地位。同非克隆植物相比，克隆植物大多具有更强的适应环境压力的能力。在高纬度、高海拔地区，克隆植物的丰富度较高。在寒冷、低氮含量、养分贫瘠的生境中出现频率较高。在高山草甸、冻原、高山裸岩和砾石稀疏植被带等胁迫生境中克隆植物占的比例较高。克隆植物中，具有不同克隆生长器官的植物在不同生境中出现频率不同。根起源克隆植物在低纬度、低海拔，以及较温暖、湿润的生境中丰富度较高，相反，茎起源克隆植物在高纬度、高海拔，较寒冷、干旱的生境中丰富度较高。根起源克隆植物中，根出条型植物的生境条件和根起源克隆植物的相同，出现在灌丛、阔叶林和竹林中的频率较高;茎起源克隆植物中，根茎型植物的生境条件和茎起源植物的相同，出现在水生植被、草甸和草原中的频率较高，而匍匐茎型植物在较温暖、湿润、阴蔽的生境中出现频率较高。不同克隆生长构型的植物对生境的适应性不同。密集型克隆植物在高纬度、高海拔，寒冷、养分贫瘠生境中较丰富，如高山灌丛、草原，荒漠草原;同密集型克隆植物相比，游击型克隆植物在低纬度、低海拔，相对温暖、湿润的生境中丰富度较高，如水生植被、草甸。 　　在低植物密度生境中，物种多样性随密集型和游击型克隆植物相对重要值的增加而增加。在高植物密度生境中，高度密集的密集型克隆分株，阻止其它物种的定居，容易形成局部垄断的格局，从而降低群落物种多样性。当游击型克隆植物进入高密度生境中时，它会借助于其分散分株的空间扩展优势迅速在生境中取得优势地位，排斥其它物种，导致物种多样性的降低。群落中克隆性与多样性的关系同植物的克隆生长构型和克隆植物种群内部的调节机制，以及植物的生境状况有关系。在低密度生境中，物种多样性随克隆植物重要性的增加而增加，在高密度生境中，物种多样性随克隆植物重要性的增加而降低。克隆性与多样性的关系还需要通过生态学实验深入研究。

克隆整合与植物对沙地生境的适应－毛乌素沙地的案例

我国是受荒漠化影响最为严重的国家之一。半干旱区和干燥的亚湿润区分布着大面积沙地，这些沙地是我国荒漠化土地的集中分布区和的主要的潜在发生区，也是重点治理区。在这些地区进行生态建设和生态恢复的首要任务是植被的恢复与重建。用于植被恢复和重建的植物种，必需能够适应沙地特殊的生态环境。 克隆植物是一个独特的植物类群，它广泛的分布于各种生态系统中。在长期的进化过程中，克隆植物形成了有效利用异质性资源以及克服（忍耐或逃避）局部不利环境条件的生态适应对策―克隆整合。位于鄂尔多斯高原的毛乌素沙地是我国的四大沙地之一，其生态环境的特点具备我国沙地生境的共性－干旱、土壤贫瘠、频繁的风沙活动以及异质性。在毛乌素沙地中，克隆植物广泛分布。本文以毛乌素沙地为案例研究的背景，以该区几种重要的克隆植物为研究对象，以该区主要的生态环境特点为处理因素，从不同层面来观察克隆整合对这些植物适应沙地环境的作用。 高度异质性的水分分布格局是该区的关键生态因子之一。水分传输可以帮助克隆植物利用不同斑块内的水分资源。在一个野外实验中，采用酸性品红染色喂饲的方法，研究了根茎型草本克隆植物沙鞭和根茎型克隆半灌木羊柴的克隆内水分传播格局。沙鞭克隆内的水分传输速度和强度都高于羊柴。这可能是沙鞭能够占据大面积生境的原因之一。此外，克隆植物分株间资源的传递是通过贯通的维管束进行的。水分可以在观察的沙鞭克隆片断内畅通无阻的传输，但在羊柴克隆内的传输受到限制。这可能与二者维管束结构的不同有关。 沙埋是该区植物经常遭遇的生态事件。本文研究了克隆整合在羊柴遭受空间异质性沙埋过程中的作用。结果表明，轻微程度的沙埋可以促进羊柴的生长和生物量积累;高强度的沙埋会削弱羊柴的生长和生物量积累，甚至会致死。克隆整合可以帮助羊柴抵抗空间异质性沙埋，尤其当沙埋的强度增加时，这种作用表现的更明显。实际上，沙埋的发生是逐渐进行的，即同时具有时间异质性。本文通过野外实验观察了沙鞭在时空异质性沙埋条件下的响应格局以及克隆整合的作用。研究表明，长时间间隔的沙埋促进沙鞭的生物量积累，克隆整合可以帮助沙鞭抵抗频繁发生的沙埋事件。此外，通过Meta-analysis方法综合了分布在沙地中的根茎型克隆植物对沙埋的响应格局的案例研究。结果表明，轻微的沙埋能够促进根茎型克隆植物的生物量积累，高强度的沙埋对这些植物是一种生态胁迫，克隆整合可以帮助这些植物抵抗这种生态胁迫。这强烈的支持了这样一种观点，即克隆整合是根茎型克隆植物在长期的适应进化过程中形成的抵抗高强度沙埋的生态策略。 该区也生长着很多密集型克隆植物。养分的空间异质性在各种尺度上存在，密集型克隆植物也可能经历小尺度的养分异质性。以糙隐子草为研究对象，观察其在同质和异质养分条件下的生物量、生物量配置格局以及有性繁殖和克隆生长的权衡。结果表明：在异质性的养分条件下，相连的克隆片断的总体生物量、地上无性结构生物量、根生物量以及分株大小都显著高于切断的克隆片断;同样，异质性斑块中的相连的克隆片断的表现高于同质性斑块。这暗示着克隆整合能够帮助密集型克隆植物糙隐子草更好的利用小尺度的养分异质性。 此外，通过野外调查的方式观察该区两种重要的克隆半灌木，游击型的羊柴和密集型的油蒿在小尺度不同植被盖度斑块下的生物量配置格局。结果表明：羊柴的地上各部分生物量对植被盖度变化的响应不如油蒿敏感。这可能是因为羊柴的游击型克隆构型决定其可以跨越小尺度斑块实现克隆生理整合，从而利用不同小生境斑块的资源所致。油蒿只能利用小生境斑块内的资源，当小生境斑块的条件改变，其生物量以及配置方式也随之发生相应的变化。在繁殖方式上，羊柴的有性繁殖结构以及有性繁殖投资显著小于油蒿。在资源有限的条件下，对一种繁殖方式的投资常常会削弱另一种繁殖方式。羊柴主要依靠克隆生长，这符合并支持配置理论的观点。植物的空间格局与植物自身的生活史性状密切相关。羊柴和油蒿不同的生活史特性必然会在各自的种群空间格局中体现出来。本文还采用地统计学的方法，观察二者的种群空间格局。种群水平上，小尺度的空间自相关控制着羊柴种群的空间格局;油蒿种群的空间格局受更大尺度的过程控制，并在自身为建群种的群落随机分布。对于油蒿种群而言，发生在小于抽样尺度（<1m）的随机变异高于相应的羊柴种群。这两种克隆半灌木的种群空间格局的差异可能与二者克隆构型和克隆性的不同有关。 本文的研究对象不仅涉及根茎型克隆草本植物，还包括了克隆半灌木，不仅涉及游击型克隆植物，而且涵盖了密集型克隆植物。因此，本文的研究不仅有助于在理论上理解克隆植物对异质性生境的适应策略，在实践上也能为该区的生态恢复提供一定的理论依据。

克隆植物东方草莓对异质生境的适应对策

克隆植物被认为比非克隆植物更宜于利用异质性环境。在复杂的空间异质环境中，克隆植物可能形成了各种有效利用环境异质性的适应对策。对于克隆植物适应机制的研究，前人已做了大量的工作，特别是从形态和生物量分配等方面对简单异质生境下克隆植物的克隆整合和克隆分工进行了详细的研究。本研究以分布广泛的克隆植物东方草莓（Fragaria orientalis）作为研究对象，应用野外调查和实验生态学方法，采用多对比度单资源模型和不同向双资源模型，从形态和生理生态的角度，研究复杂异质生境下克隆植物的整合和分工及其耗益问题，分析不同类型的生境对克隆植物整合和分工的修饰作用，进而探讨克隆植物对异质生境的适应策略。克隆构型和分株种群特征是植物克隆生长及其生态适应对策研究的基本内容。本文通过野外调查，研究在不同光照条件下东方草莓克隆构型、分株种群特征以及点分布格局。结果表明：东方草莓的克隆构型随光照发生相应的变化，低光照下其匍匐茎节间长和分枝角度均增大而分枝强度减小；随光照减弱，东方草莓分株种群的生物量、根冠比和分株种群密度显著降低；不同光照下东方草莓分株均以随机分布为主但不同尺度下有所差异，其分布格局强度依次为旷地<林缘<林下。结合克隆植物对资源的利用对策，探讨了克隆构型和分株种群特征以及分布格局随环境条件变化的生态适应意义。不同生境斑块条件下克隆植物可能采取不同的适应对策。采用盆栽实验，研究不同水分对比度下克隆整合及其生理生态特征，并对单向和交互资源中东方草莓的克隆整合做了对比研究。结果显示：高的水分对比度能够促进东方草莓的克隆整合，并能刺激相连分株增加光合作用，东方草莓体内的氧化—抗氧化系统也II随对比度做出相应的反应。耗-益分析表明胁迫分株的受益是以供给分株的损耗为代价的，但从克隆片段总体来说是受益的。单向资源中东方草莓生长的绝对值高于交互资源，但耗-益分析表明生长于交互资源下东方草莓的克隆整合获益大于生长于单向资源下东方草莓的克隆整合获益。长期生长于特定生境的克隆植物，在进化过程中其克隆整合和克隆分工在对资源异质性的适应策略方面可能有所侧重。采用盆栽实验对来自不同海拔梯度的东方草莓的克隆整合和克隆分工对异质资源的适应对策进行了研究。实验结果表明，来自高海拔的东方草莓可塑性较差。来自两个海拔的东方草莓对切断匍匐茎的表现有所差异，总体上切断匍匐茎对来自高海拔的东方草莓影响更大些。另外，来自高海拔的东方草莓表现出更高的克隆分工。IIIClonal plants are known to be more suitable for the habitats of heterogeneousresources than nonclonal plants, perhaps due to their well developed adaptivestrategies to environmental heterogeneity. Many studies have been done on theadaptive mechanisms of clonal plants, especially on the clonal integration anddivision of labor with morphology and biomass allocation under simpleheterogeneous habitats. Based on field surveys, laboratory experiments, multi-contrastunidirectional resource model and reciprocal resource model, Fragaria orientalis, aRosaceae stoloniferous herb that widely distributes in China, was used to study thisplant’s morphological and physiological responses to complicated heterogeneoushabitats in terms of its clonal integration, division of labor and cost-benefit, as well astheir modifications by different habitats, so as to better understand the adaptivestrategies of clonal plants under heterogeneous environments.Clonal architecture and ramet population characteristics are of the major concernin the studies on growth and adaptive strategies of clonal plants. Clonal architecture,ramet population characteristics and spatial point pattern of F. orientalis underdifferent light intensity were studied with field observations. The results showed that,clonal architecture changed with light availability: Internode-lengths and branchangels of stolons were larger while branch intensities were smaller under lower lightintensity than those under higher light intensity; Biomass of ramet population,root-shoot ratio and density of ramet population decreased significantly with reduce oflight intensity; Under all light intensities, spatial pattern of ramets was mainlyrandomly distributed but it changed with different scales, with pattern intensity as:open space < forest edge < understory. Adaptation significance of the clonal architecture, the ramet population characteristics and the spatial pattern changing withdifferent environments was discussed according to these results.Clonal plants may take different adaptive strategies under different patches. Withpot culture, clonal integration and physiological parameters of F. orientalis underdifferent water contrasts were studied, and clonal integration under unilateralresources and reciprocal resources were also compared. The results suggested that,high water contrast improve the clonal integration of F. orientalis and increase thephotosynthesis of connected ramets. Oxidative and antioxidative system of F.orientalis also responded with changing water contrasts. According to cost-benefitanalysis, the drought-stressed ramets obtained benefits from the connectedwell-watered ramets, and as a whole, the clonal fragment could also get benefits.Growth of F. orientalis in homogeneous resources was better than that inheterogeneous resources, but the whole plant got more benefit through clonalintegration in heterogeneous resources than in homogeneous resources.Pot culture experiments were also used to study the adaptive strategies inutilizing heterogeneous resources by the plant populations from different altitudes.The results showed that, F. orientalis from alpine zones were shorter and lessexpanded with poorer clonal plasticity than those from middle mountains. F.orientalis from two different altitudes showed different responses to stolon severing,and as a whole, stolon severing had more influence on F. orientalis from alpine zones.In addition, F. orientalis from alpine zones exhibited higher division of labor, whichsuggested that clonal plants from different habitats develop their own adaptivemechanisms in their clonal integration and division of labor in response toenvironmental heterogeneity.

Lancefield group C and G streptococci in human infection : molecular typing, virulence and antimicrobial susceptibility

Tese de doutoramento, Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde (Microbiologia), Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Medicina, 2014

The structural architecture of adult mammalian articular cartilage evolves by a synchronized process of tissue resorption and neoformation during postnatal development

OBJECTIVE: During postnatal development, mammalian articular cartilage acts as a surface growth plate for the underlying epiphyseal bone. Concomitantly, it undergoes a fundamental process of structural reorganization from an immature isotropic to a mature (adult) anisotropic architecture. However, the mechanism underlying this structural transformation is unknown. It could involve either an internal remodelling process, or complete resorption followed by tissue neoformation. The aim of this study was to establish which of these two alternative tissue reorganization mechanisms is physiologically operative. We also wished to pinpoint the articular cartilage source of the stem cells for clonal expansion and the zonal location of the chondrocyte pool with high proliferative activity. METHODS: The New Zealand white rabbit served as our animal model. The analysis was confined to the high-weight-bearing (central) areas of the medial and lateral femoral condyles. After birth, the articular cartilage layer was evaluated morphologically at monthly intervals from the first to the eighth postnatal month, when this species attains skeletal maturity. The overall height of the articular cartilage layer at each juncture was measured. The growth performance of the articular cartilage layer was assessed by calcein labelling, which permitted an estimation of the daily growth rate of the epiphyseal bone and its monthly length-gain. The slowly proliferating stem-cell pool was identified immunohistochemically (after labelling with bromodeoxyuridine), and the rapidly proliferating chondrocyte population by autoradiography (after labelling with (3)H-thymidine). RESULTS: The growth activity of the articular cartilage layer was highest 1 month after birth. It declined precipitously between the first and third months, and ceased between the third and fourth months, when the animal enters puberty. The structural maturation of the articular cartilage layer followed a corresponding temporal trend. During the first 3 months, when the articular cartilage layer is undergoing structural reorganization, the net length-gain in the epiphyseal bone exceeded the height of the articular cartilage layer. This finding indicates that the postnatal reorganization of articular cartilage from an immature isotropic to a mature anisotropic structure is not achieved by a process of internal remodelling, but by the resorption and neoformation of all zones except the most superficial (stem-cell) one. The superficial zone was found to consist of slowly dividing stem cells with bidirectional mitotic activity. In the horizontal direction, this zone furnishes new stem cells that replenish the pool and effect a lateral expansion of the articular cartilage layer. In the vertical direction, the superficial zone supplies the rapidly dividing, transit-amplifying daughter-cell pool that feeds the transitional and upper radial zones during the postnatal growth phase of the articular cartilage layer. CONCLUSIONS: During postnatal development, mammalian articular cartilage fulfils a dual function, viz., it acts not only as an articulating layer but also as a surface growth plate. In the lapine model, this growth activity ceases at puberty (3-4 months of age), whereas that of the true (metaphyseal) growth plate continues until the time of skeletal maturity (8 months). Hence, the two structures are regulated independently. The structural maturation of the articular cartilage layer coincides temporally with the cessation of its growth activity - for the radial expansion and remodelling of the epiphyseal bone - and with sexual maturation. That articular cartilage is physiologically reorganized by a process of tissue resorption and neoformation, rather than by one of internal remodelling, has important implications for the functional engineering and repair of articular cartilage tissue.

Modeling Nymphoides architecture: A morphological analysis of Nymphoides aquatica (Menyanthaceae)

• Premise of the study: Species in the aquatic genus Nymphoides have inflorescences that appear to arise from the petioles of floating leaves. The inflorescence-floating leaf complex can produce vegetative propagules and/or additional inflorescences and leaves. We analyzed the morphology of N. aquatica to determine how this complex relates to whole plant architecture and whether whole plant growth is sympodial or monopodial. • Methods: We used dissections, measurements, and microscopic observations of field-collected plants and plants cultivated for 2 years in outdoor tanks in south Florida, USA. • Key results: Nymphoides aquatica had a submerged plagiotropic rhizome that produced floating leaves in an alternate/spiral phyllotaxy. Rhizomes were composed of successive sympodial units that varied in the number of leaves produced before the apex terminated. The basic sympodial unit had a prophyll that subtended a renewal-shoot bud, a short-petioled leaf (SPL) with floating lamina, and an inflorescence; the SPL axillary bud expanded as a vegetative propagule. Plants produced either successive basic sympodial units or expanded sympodia that intercalated long-petioled leaves between the prophyll and the SPL. • Conclusions: Nymphoides aquatica grows sympodially, forming a rhizome composed of successive basic sympodia and expanded sympodial units. Variations on these types of sympodial growth help explain the branching patterns and leaf morphologies described for other Nymphoides species. Monitoring how these two sympodial phases are affected by water depth provides an ecologically meaningful way to assess N. aquatica’s responses to altered hydrology.

Communication Architecture Design for Real-Time Networked Control Systems

Networked control over data networks has received increasing attention in recent years. Among many problems in networked control systems (NCSs) is the need to reduce control latency and jitter and to deal with packet dropouts. This paper introduces our recent progress on a queuing communication architecture for real-time NCS applications, and simple strategies for dealing with packet dropouts. Case studies for a middle-scale process or multiple small-scale processes are presented for TCP/IP based real-time NCSs. Variations of network architecture design are modelled, simulated, and analysed for evaluation of control latency and jitter performance. It is shown that a simple bandwidth upgrade or adding hierarchy does not necessarily bring benefits for performance improvement of control latency and jitter. A co-design of network and control is necessary to maximise the real-time control performance of NCSs