Animal model and molecular interactions of Cln5

Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs) are a family of inherited pediatric neurodegenerative disorders, leading to retinal degeneration, death of selective neuronal populations and accumulation of autofluorscent ceroid-lipopigments. The clinical manifestations are generally similar in all forms. The Finnish variant late infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (vLINCLFin) is a form of NCL, especially enriched in the Finnish population. The aim of this thesis was to analyse the brain pathology of vLINCLFin utilising the novel Cln5-/- mouse model. Gene expression profiling of the brains of already symptomatic Cln5-/- mice revealed that inflammation, neurodegeneration and defects in myelinization are the major characteristics of the later stages of the disease. Histological characterization of the brain pathology confirmed that the thalamocortical system is affected in Cln5-/- mice, similarly to the other NCL mouse models. However, whereas the brain pathology in all other analyzed NCL mice initiate in the thalamus and spread only months later to the cortex, we observed that the sequence of events is uniquely reversed in Cln5-/- mice; beginning in the cortex and spreading to the thalamus only months later. We could also show that even though neurodegeneration is inititated in the cortex, reactive gliosis and loss of myelin are evident in specific nuclei of the thalamus already in the 1 month old brain. To obtain a deeper insight into the disturbed metabolic pathways, we performed gene expression profiling of presymptomatic mouse brains. We validated these findings with immunohistological analyses, and could show that cytoskeleton and myelin were affected in Cln5-/- mice. Comparison of gene expression profiling results of Cln5-/- and Cln1-/- mice, further highlighted that these two NCL models share a common defective pathway, leading to disturbances in the neuronal growth cone and cytoskeleton. Encouraged by the evidence of this defected pathway, we analyzed the molecular interactions of NCL-proteins and observed that Cln5 and Cln1/Ppt1 proteins interact with each other. Furthermore, we demonstrated that Cln5 and Cln1/Ppt1 share an interaction partner, the F1-ATP synthase, potentially linking both vLINCLFIN and INCL diseases to disturbed lipid metabolism. In addition, Cln5 was shown to interact with other NCL proteins; Cln2, Cln3, Cln6 and Cln8, implicating a central role for Cln5 in the NCL pathophysiology. This study is the first to describe the brain pathology and gene expression changes in the Cln5-/- mouse. Together the findings presented in this thesis represent novel information of the disease processes and the molecular mechanisms behind vLINCLFin and have highlighted that vLINCLFin forms a very important model to analyze the pathophysiology of NCL diseases.

Molecular Interactions Underlying Neuronal Ceroid Lipofuscinoses CLN1 and CLN5

Disorders resulting from degenerative changes in the nervous system are progressive and incurable. Both environmental and inherited factors affect neuron function, and neurodegenerative diseases are often the sum of both factors. The cellular events leading to neuronal death are still mostly unknown. Monogenic diseases can offer a model for studying the mechanisms of neurodegeneration. Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses, or NCLs, are a group of monogenic, recessively inherited diseases affecting mostly children. NCLs cause severe and specific loss of neurons in the central nervous system, resulting in the deterioration of motor and mental skills and leading to premature death. In this thesis, the focus has been on two forms of NCL, the infantile NCL (INCL, CLN1) and the Finnish variant of late infantile NCL (vLINCLFin, CLN5). INCL is caused by mutations in the CLN1 gene encoding for the PPT1 (palmitoyl protein thioesterase 1) enzyme. PPT1 removes a palmitate moiety from proteins in experimental conditions, but its substrates in vivo are not known. In the Finnish variant of late infantile NCL (vLINCLFin), the CLN5 gene is defective, but the function of the encoded CLN5 has remained unknown. The aim of this thesis was to elucidate the disease mechanisms of these two NCL diseases by focusing on the molecular interactions of the defective proteins. In this work, the first interaction partner for PPT1, the mitochondrial F1-ATP synthase, was described. This protein has been linked to HDL metabolism in addition to its well-known role in the mitochondrial energy production. The connection between PPT1 and the F1-ATP synthase was studied utilizing the INCL-disease model, the genetically modified Ppt1-deficient mice. The levels of F1-ATP synthase subunits were increased on the surface of Ppt1-deficient neurons when compared to controls. We also detected several changes in lipid metabolism both at the cellular and systemic levels in Ppt1-deficient mice when compared to controls. The interactions between different NCL proteins were also elucidated. We were able to detect novel interactions between CLN5 and other NCL proteins, and to replicate the previously reported interactions. Some of the novel interactions influenced the intracellular trafficking of the proteins. The multiple interactions between CLN5 and other NCL proteins suggest a connection between the NCL subtypes at the cellular level. The main results of this thesis elicit information about the neuronal function of PPT1. The connection between INCL and neuronal lipid metabolism introduces a new perspective to this rather poorly characterized subject. The evidence of the interactions between NCL proteins provides the basis for future research trying to untangle the NCL disease mechanisms and to develop strategies for therapies.

Fonction de la protéine Ceroid lipofuscinosis neuronal 5 (CLN5) dans le tri et le recyclage à l’endosome

Le tri et le transport efficace des hydrolases acides vers le lysosome jouent un rôle critique pour la fonction des cellules. Plus de 50 maladies humaines sont dues à des mutations des enzymes lysosomales, des protéines régulant des processus-clés du transport vers le lysosome ou des enzymes effectuant des modifications posttraductionnelles importantes pour la fonction du lysosome. L’objectif de cette thèse est d’identifier des protéines et des mécanismes permettant à la cellule de réguler le transport des enzymes vers le lysosome. Nous avons formulé l’hypothèse que des protéines mutées dans des maladies lysosomales et dont les fonctions étaient inconnues pouvaient jouer un rôle dans le transport vers le lysosome. Les céroïdes-lipofuscinoses neuronales forment une famille de maladies lysosomales rares mais sont aussi les maladies neurodégénératives infantiles les plus fréquentes. Plusieurs gènes impliqués dans les NCL encodent des protéines aux fonctions inconnues. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse ont identifié la protéine « ceroid lipofuscinosis neuronal-5 » (CLN5) qui est localisée à l’endosome et au lysosome comme élément nécessaire au recrutement et à l’activation de rab7. Rab7 est une protéine Rab-clé qui contrôle le trafic à l’endosome tardif. Cette petite GTPase est impliquée dans le recrutement de retromer, un complexe protéique qui régule le trafic de l’endosome vers l’appareil de Golgi des récepteurs de tri lysosomal comme sortilin et le récepteur du mannose-6-phosphate. Dans les cellules où CLN5 est déplété, les récepteurs de tri lysosomal sont moins recyclés plus rapidement dégradés. En utilisant des expériences de photomarquage nous avons aussi pu démontrer que Rab7 est moins activées en l’absence de CLN5. Pour exécuter leur fonction les protéines rabs doivent être recrutée à la membrane et activées par l’échange d’une molécule de GDP pour une molécule de GTP. Le recrutement des Rabs à la membrane nécessite une modification posttraductionnelle lipidique pour être facilités. En utilisant un modèle de levures nous avons démontré que l’homologue de Rab7, Ypt7 est palmitoylée. Nous avons aussi démontré que la palmitoyltransférase Swif1 est nécessaire au recrutement de Ypt7 à la membrane. Nous avons aussi remarqué que les sous- unités de retromer chez la levure sont moins recrutées lorsque les palmitoyltransférases sont déplétées. Dans les cellules de mammifères nous avons démontré que Rab7 est également palmitoylé et que cette palmitoylation est possiblement effectuée par les palmitoyltransférases DHHC1 et DHHC8. La palmitoylation de Rab7 a lieu sur les cystéines en C-terminal qui sont nécessaires au recrutement membranaire et qui auparavant étaient uniquement décrites comme prénylées. En utilisant la méthode de « click chemistry » nous avons découvert que lorsque la prénylation de Rab7 est bloquée le niveau de palmitoylation augmente. Pour caractériser l’interaction entre CLN5 et Rab7 nous avons performé des expériences afin d’établir définitivement la topologie de cette protéine. Nous avons ainsi démontré que CLN5 est une protéine hautement glycosylée qui est initialement traduite en protéine transmembranaire et subséquemment clivée par un membre de la famille des peptidase de peptide signal (SPP). Cette protéine soluble peut alors possiblement interagir avec CLN3 qui est aussi palmitoylée pour recruter et activer Rab7. Nos études suggèrent pour la première fois que CLN5 pourrait être un recruteur et un activateur de Rab7 qui agirait avec la protéine CLN3 pour séquestrer Rab7 avec les autres récepteurs palmitoylés et permettre leur recyclage vers l’appareil de Golgi.

Dissection of the genetic background of childhood onset progressive myoclonic epilepsies

The progressive myoclonic epilepsies (PMEs) are a clinically and etiologically heterogeneous group of symptomatic epilepsies characterized by myoclonus, tonic-clonic seizures, psychomotor regression and ataxia. Different disorders have been classified as PMEs. Of these, the group of neuronal ceroid lipofuscinoses (NCLs) comprise an entity that has onset in childhood, being the most common cause of neurodegeneration in children. The primary aim of this thesis was to dissect the molecular genetic background of patients with childhood onset PME by studying candidate genes and attempting to identify novel PME-associated genes. Another specific aim was to study the primary protein properties of the most recently identified member of the NCL-causing proteins, MFSD8. To dissect the genetic background of a cohort of Turkish patients with childhood onset PME, a screen of the NCL-associated genes PPT1, TPP1, CLN3, CLN5, CLN6, MFSD8, CLN8 and CTSD was performed. Altogether 49 novel mutations were identified, which together with 56 mutations found by collaborators raised the total number of known NCL mutations to 364. Fourteen of the novel mutations affect the recently identified MFSD8 gene, which had originally been identified in a subset of mainly Turkish patients as the underlying cause of CLN7 disease. To investigate the distribution of MFSD8 defects, a total of 211 patients of different ethnic origins were evaluated for mutations in the gene. Altogether 45 patients from nine different countries were provided with a CLN7 molecular diagnosis, denoting the wide geographical occurrence of MFSD8 defects. The mutations are private with only one having been established by a founder-effect in the Roma population from the former Czechoslovakia. All mutations identified except one are associated with the typical clinical picture of variant late-infantile NCL. To address the trafficking properties of MFSD8, lysosomal targeting of the protein was confirmed in both neuronal and non-neuronal cells. The major determinant for this lysosomal sorting was identified to be an N-terminal dileucine based signal (9-EQEPLL-14), recognized by heterotetrameric AP-1 adaptor proteins, suggesting that MFSD8 takes the direct trafficking pathway en route to the lysosomes. Expression studies revealed the neurons as the primary cell-type and the hippocampus and cerebellar granular cell layer as the predominant regions in which MFSD8 is expressed. To identify novel genes associated with childhood onset PME, a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genomewide scan was performed in three small families and 18 sporadic patients followed by homozygosity mapping to determine the candidate loci. One of the families and a sporadic patient were positive for mutations in PLA2G6, a gene that had previously been shown to cause infantile neuroaxonal dystrophy. Application of next-generation sequencing of candidate regions in the remaining two families led to identification of a homozygous missense mutation in USP19 for the first and TXNDC6 for the second family. Analysis of the 18 sporadic cases mapped the best candidate interval in a 1.5 Mb region on chromosome 7q21. Screening of the positional candidate KCTD7 revealed six mutations in seven unrelated families. All patients with mutations in KCTD7 were reported to have early onset PME, rapid disease progression leading to dementia and no pathologic hallmarks. The identification of KCTD7 mutations in nine patients and the clinical delineation of their phenotype establish KCTD7 as a gene for early onset PME. The findings presented in this thesis denote MFSD8 and KCTD7 as genes commonly associated with childhood onset symptomatic epilepsy. The disease-associated role of TXNDC6 awaits verification through identification of additional mutations in patients with similar phenotypes. Completion of the genetic spectrum underlying childhood onset PMEs and understanding of the gene products functions will comprise important steps towards understanding the underlying pathogenetic mechanisms, and will possibly shed light on the general processes of neurodegeneration and nervous system regulation, facilitating the diagnosis, classification and possibly treatment of the affected cases.