Assessment of In-House Natural Product and Synthetic Compound Libraries Based on In vitro Inhibition of Cholinesterases

The first line medication for mild to moderate Alzheimer s disease (AD) is based on cholinesterase inhibitors which prolong the effect of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in cholinergic nerve synapses which relieves the symptoms of the disease. Implications of cholinesterases involvement in disease modifying processes has increased interest in this research area. The drug discovery and development process is a long and expensive process that takes on average 13.5 years and costs approximately 0.9 billion US dollars. Drug attritions in the clinical phases are common due to several reasons, e.g., poor bioavailability of compounds leading to low efficacy or toxic effects. Thus, improvements in the early drug discovery process are needed to create highly potent non-toxic compounds with predicted drug-like properties. Nature has been a good source for the discovery of new medicines accounting for around half of the new drugs approved to market during the last three decades. These compounds are direct isolates from the nature, their synthetic derivatives or natural mimics. Synthetic chemistry is an alternative way to produce compounds for drug discovery purposes. Both sources have pros and cons. The screening of new bioactive compounds in vitro is based on assaying compound libraries against targets. Assay set-up has to be adapted and validated for each screen to produce high quality data. Depending on the size of the library, miniaturization and automation are often requirements to reduce solvent and compound amounts and fasten the process. In this contribution, natural extract, natural pure compound and synthetic compound libraries were assessed as sources for new bioactive compounds. The libraries were screened primarily for acetylcholinesterase inhibitory effect and secondarily for butyrylcholinesterase inhibitory effect. To be able to screen the libraries, two assays were evaluated as screening tools and adapted to be compatible with special features of each library. The assays were validated to create high quality data. Cholinesterase inhibitors with various potencies and selectivity were found in natural product and synthetic compound libraries which indicates that the two sources complement each other. It is acknowledged that natural compounds differ structurally from compounds in synthetic compound libraries which further support the view of complementation especially if a high diversity of structures is the criterion for selection of compounds in a library.

Probing the mid-gorge of cholinesterases with spacer-modified bivalent quinazolinimines leads to highly potent and selective butyrylcholinesterase inhibitors

The spacer structure of homobivalent quinazolinimes acting as potent acetyl-(AChE)- and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) inhibitors was chemically modified introducing tertiary amine and acyl-amide moieties, and the activities at both ChEs were evaluated. Molecular docking was applied to explain the data and probe the capacity of the mid-gorge site of both ChEs. The novel spacer structures considerably alter the biological profile of bivalent quinazolinimines with regard to both inhibitory activity and selectivity. Mutual interaction of binding to the various sites of the enzymes was further investigated by applying also different spacer lengths and ring sizes of the alicycle of the tricyclic quinazolinimines. In order to achieve selectivity toward BChE and to improve inhibitory activities, the spacer structure was optimized and identified a highly potent and selective BChE inhibitor. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Susceptibilidade de pacus, Piaractus mesopotamicus (Holmberg, 1887), sob hipoxia aos agrotóxicos organofosforados

A ação inibitória dos organofosforados sobre as esterases, por ser específica, pode ser empregada como um eficiente biomarcador da exposição de seres vivos aos organofosforados. A inibição da acetilcolinesterase (AChE; EC 3.1.1.7) provoca acúmulo do neurotransmissor acetilcolina nas fendas sinápticas colinérgicas, o que pode resultar na morte do indivíduo. Outra atividade também afetada por organofosforados é a da enzima carboxilesterase (CarbE; EC 3.1.1.1). CarbE estão envolvidas na fase I da biotransformação de xenobióticos e atuam como captadoras (scavengers) de organofosfatos, incluindo os formados pela biotransformação dos organofosforados. As CarbE estudadas até hoje se ligam com maior velocidade aos organofosfatos do que as colinesterases. Por isto se admite que CarbE possam diminuir, por captação estequiométrica, a ligação tóxica de moléculas de organofosfatos às acetilcolinesterases das sinapses colinérgicas e das placas motoras dos músculos. Experimentos realizados em nosso laboratório mostraram que a atividade da CarbE está aproximadamente 50% menor no soro e no fígado de pacus submetidos à hipoxia. Por causa disso, em razão de uma possível diminuição da capacidade captadora da CarbE, decidimos verificar se o pacu em hipoxia seria mais sensível aos agrotóxicos organofosforados. Para este propósito foram colocados seis pacus divididos em dois tanques. No primeiro tanque, os animais foram submetidos a 24 horas de hipoxia seguidos por mais 4 horas de exposição ao organofosforado metilparation em duas concentrações diferentes (0,02 ou 0,01 mg / L). No segundo tanque os animais permaneceram em normoxia durante o mesmo período de 24 horas e depois foram expostos ao metilparation como no primeiro tanque. As atividades da AChE ensaiada com acetiltiocolina, a da butirilcolinesterase (BChE) ensaiada com butiriltiocolina e a da CarbE ensaiada com p-nitrofenilacetato foram avaliadas no soro, fígado, cérebro, músculo e coração dos pacus. Houve redução de aproximadamente 35% da atividade de CarbE no soro dos pacus submetidos a 24 horas de hipoxia. Uma queda de 85% na atividade de CarbE do soro foi observada nos animais que sofreram hipoxia e subsequente exposição a 0,02 mg de metilparation por litro. Com metilparation a 0,01 mg/L a diminuição observada foi de 48,2%. No músculo dos pacus expostos a 0,02 mg/L, as atividades de AChE e BChE cairam pela metade quando os mesmos foram submetidos à hipoxia quando comparados a animais que permaneceram em normoxia. Nos diversos tecidos dos pacus expostos a 0,01 mg/L de metilparation não observamos diferenças significativas nas atividades de AChE, BChE ou CarbE. Concluímos que a duplicação da concentração de metilparation de 0,01 para 0,02 mg/L levou à atividade residual de CarbE do soro de 51,8% para 15%. A ausência de mudanças nas atividades das esterases dos tecidos de animais expostos a 0,01 mg/L entre os grupos hipoxia e normoxia deve ter ocorrido porque a concentração de organofosforado não foi suficiente para superar a primeira barreira de proteção das esterases séricas e atingir os tecidos. Mas, no experimento com 0,02 mg/L de metilparation, as inibições de AChE e de BChE no músculo dos animais em hipoxia podem ser explicadas pela diminuição da atividade de CarbE do soro dos pacus.

Toxicity assessment of essential metals in aquatic detritivores

Os contaminantes provenientes quer de fontes naturais quer como consequência da atividade humana, têm contribuído para a degradação dos ecossistemas aquáticos. Entre estes encontram-se os metais que podem, ou não ser essenciais mediante o papel que desempenham no metabolismo dos organismos. O cobre e o zinco são exemplos de metais essenciais, contudo quando atingem concentrações elevadas podem tornar-se tóxicos. Os detritívoros aquáticos desempenham um papel fundamental na decomposição da matéria orgânica, alimentando-se de carcaças e partes de plantas que caem nos cursos de água. Assim, estes organismos permitem que o ciclo dos nutrientes se complete e servem como elo de ligação entre todos os grupos funcionais do ecossistema mantendo o seu equilíbrio estrutural e funcional. Sendo a matéria orgânica a sua principal fonte de energia estão sujeitos à contaminação existente no meio, pelo que é de todo o interesse proceder-se à avaliação dos efeitos da toxicidade de metais nestes organismos. Uma vez que as diferenças comportamentais consequentes desta exposição podem originar variações na densidade e diversidade, o que se refletirá a nível das comunidades, originando alterações na estrutura e funcionamento do ecossistema. Tendo em vista a avaliação dos efeitos da contaminação por metais em detritívoros, o principal objetivo deste trabalho foi comparar a sensibilidade a metais essenciais de dois detritivoros aquáticos, o camarão Atyaephyra desmarestii e o anfípode Echinogammarus meridionalis. Para tal, avaliaram-se os efeitos do cobre e do zinco a diferentes níveis de organização biológica. Primeiro, foram determinadas as preferências alimentares de A. desmarestii e E. meridionalis considerando tanto a área das folhas como a contaminação por metais das folhas. Em seguida, avaliaram-se os efeitos do cobre e do zinco na sobrevivência e inibição alimentar de ambas as espécies. Finalmente, avaliaram-se os efeitos destes mesmos metais a nível bioquímico utilizando uma bateria de biomarcadores que incluiu enzimas de stresse oxidativo, o sistema de defesa antioxidante e as colinesterases. Ambos os organismos não mostraram preferência em relação a folhas de área diferente. A presença de uma maior ou menor concentração de metais essenciais no alimento não teve qualquer influência na sua escolha pelo alimento (contaminado ou não). Os ensaios agudos de cobre e zinco mostraram que o cobre é mais tóxico para ambas as espécies do que o zinco. O camarão demonstrou ser mais sensível ao zinco que o anfípode, tendo este sido mais sensível ao cobre ( CL50 do cobre para A. desmarestii foi de 0,128 mg.l-1 e o de E. meridionalis foi de 0,050 mg.l-1; os valores correspondentes para o zinco foram 7,951 e 11,860 mg.l-1, respectivamente. Em relação aos efeitos subletais, o cobre teve efeitos notórios na taxa de alimentação de E. meridionalis, mas não afectou a de A. desmarestii. No que diz respeito à exposição ao zinco, ambas as espécies parecem apresentar tendência para inibir a alimentação. A caracterização das colinesterases revelou que a principal forma presente em ambas as espécies é a acetilcolinesterase, a qual que não foi afetada pela presença dos metais, no caso do camarão, mas parece ser inibida pelo zinco no caso do anfípode. O cobre inibiu o sistema de defesa enzimático de ambas as espécies, sem sinais de danos lipídicos. Para além disto, inibiu uma das enzimas antioxidantes (GPx) do anfípode. Apesar de não ter ocorrido dano lipídico após exposição ao cobre, observou-se um ligeiro aumento dos níveis das LPO, o que pode ser indicativo de uma potencial existência de dano oxidativo, como resultado da falha do sistema de defesa antioxidante. Por outro lado, o zinco induziu o sistema de defesa em E. meriodionalis prevenindo o dano lipídico. Enquanto em A. desmarestii o sistema enzimático antioxidante não respondeu, tendo ocorrido dano celular oxidativo considerando-se, assim, que o sistema de defesa antioxidante do camarão pode ser comprometido por exposição a metais. Ainda que os danos celulares oxidativos tivessem ocorrido a baixas concentrações de zinco. A exposição a este metal também induziu a actividade da GST de E. meriodionalis. Considerando que a taxa de alimentação foi severamente reduzida no caso deste organismo, o zinco parece ser o metal cuja concentração no ecossistema requer maior atenção. Integrando as respostas dos biomarcadores parece também evidente que A. desmarestii responde de uma maneira geral a maiores concentrações dos dois metais, enquanto a resposta de E. meridionalis ocorre a concentrações inferiores. Pelo que, E. meridionalis parece ser mais sensível ao nível bioquímico. Neste trabalho, os dois detritívoros, com ligeiras diferenças no modo como utilizam a matéria orgânica disponível, apresentam diferenças na sensibilidade aos metais essenciais a vários níveis de organização biológica, sendo o zinco o metal que poderá causar maior preocupação a nível bioquímico, enquanto o cobre parece ser o mais tóxico ao nível do organismo, causando mortalidade a concentrações mais baixas.

Toxicidade de químicos em mistura: o caso da albufeira do Alqueva

In the environment humans and biota are generally exposed to chemical mixtures rather than individual chemicals. Therefore, when assessing the environmental risk of chemicals, it is important to consider chemical mixtures and their possible interactions. The main objective of this work focused on the environmental risk assessment of pesticides found in the water of the Alqueva reservoir and their binary combinations. In this aquatic ecosystem several pesticides were above of the environmental quality standards. But in addition, there were several sampling points of the reservoir where ecotoxicity was observed despite the presence of these contaminants at low concentrations. Here, a component-based approach was used to assess the effects of the pesticide mixtures. The effects of the binary combinations of four herbicides, atrazine (ATR), terbuthylazine (TER), simazine (SIM) and metolachlor (MET), on the growth rate of the microalgae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata and the effects of the binary combinations of the s-triazine herbicides ATR and TER and the insecticide chlorpyrifos (CPF) on the swimming behaviour and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity of the zebrafish Danio rerio were assessed using the two reference models of concentration addition (CA) and independent action (IA). Moreover, the combined effects of the herbicides (ATR, TER and MET) and the insecticide CPF were also tested on the swimming behaviour and AChE activity of the aquatic midge Chironomus riparius after the cholinesterases characterization. In this risk characterization, the calculated risk quotients for the herbicides ATR, TER, SIM and MET were higher than 1, meaning that these herbicides present a high risk for the Alqueva ecosystem. As expected, the microalgae P. subcapitata was the most sensitive species to the herbicides. However, despite these herbicides pose no or low risk to other aquatic organisms tested in this study, with EC50 values much higher than the concentrations found in this aquatic ecosystem, they are able to increase the toxic effects of CPF when they are tested in binary mixtures. Moreover, the risk quotients of mixtures of these herbicides present simultaneously in three different locations of the reservoir were also higher than 1, so this confirms the fact that these herbicides when present in mixtures, present a greater risk for this ecosystem than the expected considering each single chemical by its own.

Polimorfismos del gen Butirilcolinesterasa responsables de reacciones adversas en pacientes consumidores de “cocaína”

La butirilcolinesterasa humana (BChE; EC 3.1.1.8) es una enzima polimórfica sintetizada en el hígado y en el tejido adiposo, ampliamente distribuida en el organismo y encargada de hidrolizar algunos ésteres de colina como la procaína, ésteres alifáticos como el ácido acetilsalicílico, fármacos como la metilprednisolona, el mivacurium y la succinilcolina y drogas de uso y/o abuso como la heroína y la cocaína. Es codificada por el gen BCHE (OMIM 177400), habiéndose identificado más de 100 variantes, algunas no estudiadas plenamente, además de la forma más frecuente, llamada usual o silvestre. Diferentes polimorfismos del gen BCHE se han relacionado con la síntesis de enzimas con niveles variados de actividad catalítica. Las bases moleculares de algunas de esas variantes genéticas han sido reportadas, entre las que se encuentra las variantes Atípica (A), fluoruro-resistente del tipo 1 y 2 (F-1 y F-2), silente (S), Kalow (K), James (J) y Hammersmith (H). En este estudio, en un grupo de pacientes se aplicó el instrumento validado Lifetime Severity Index for Cocaine Use Disorder (LSI-C) para evaluar la gravedad del consumo de “cocaína” a lo largo de la vida. Además, se determinaron Polimorfismos de Nucleótido Simple (SNPs) en el gen BCHE conocidos como responsables de reacciones adversas en pacientes consumidores de “cocaína” mediante secuenciación del gen y se predijo el efecto delos SNPs sobre la función y la estructura de la proteína, mediante el uso de herramientas bio-informáticas. El instrumento LSI-C ofreció resultados en cuatro dimensiones: consumo a lo largo de la vida, consumo reciente, dependencia psicológica e intento de abandono del consumo. Los estudios de análisis molecular permitieron observar dos SNPs codificantes (cSNPs) no sinónimos en el 27.3% de la muestra, c.293A>G (p.Asp98Gly) y c.1699G>A (p.Ala567Thr), localizados en los exones 2 y 4, que corresponden, desde el punto de vista funcional, a la variante Atípica (A) [dbSNP: rs1799807] y a la variante Kalow (K) [dbSNP: rs1803274] de la enzima BChE, respectivamente. Los estudios de predicción In silico establecieron para el SNP p.Asp98Gly un carácter patogénico, mientras que para el SNP p.Ala567Thr, mostraron un comportamiento neutro. El análisis de los resultados permite proponer la existencia de una relación entre polimorfismos o variantes genéticas responsables de una baja actividad catalítica y/o baja concentración plasmática de la enzima BChE y algunas de las reacciones adversas ocurridas en pacientes consumidores de cocaína.

The effect of acute fenitrotion exposure on a variety of physiological indices, including avian aerobic metabolism during exercise and cold exposure

The effect of fenitrothion exposure on birds was examined by measuring aerobic metabolism, blood hemoglobin content, plasma cholinesterases, and body weight for up to 21 d postdose. Peak metabolic rate was measured in a flight chamber in three-dose groups of house sparrows (Passer domesticus; 100 mg/kg = high, 60 mg/kg = medium, 30 mg/kg = low) and one-dose groups of zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata; 3 mg/kg) and king quails (Coturnix chinensis; 26 mg/kg). Aerobic metabolism was measured during 1 h of exposure to subfreezing thermal conditions in low-dose house sparrows and king quails (26 mg/kg). Fenitrothion had no effect on metabolic rate during cold exposure or on blood hemoglobin at any time. By contrast, aerobic performance during exercise in sparrows was reduced by 58% (high), 18% (medium), and 20% (low), respectively, 2 d postdose. House sparrows (high) had the longest recovery period for peak metabolic rate (21 d) and plasma cholinesterase activity (14 d). House sparrows (high) and treated king quails had significantly lower myoglobin at 48 h postdose, whereas myoglobin was invariant in zebra finches and house sparrows (medium and low). Cholinesterase was maximally inhibited at 6 h postdose, and had recovered within 24 h, in house sparrows (low), king quails, and zebra finches. Exercise peak metabolic rate in zebra finches and king quails was reduced by 23% at 2 d and 3 d, respectively, despite these birds being asymptomatic in both behavior and plasma cholinesterase activities.

Effect of phenobarbital on inducing insecticide tolerance and esterase changes in Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae)

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Biossensores baseados no processo de inibição enzimática

Fast, selective, reproducible and reliable detections have been carried out by using enzymatic biosensors in several areas. The enzymatic biosensors based on the inhibition represent an important role in analytical chemistry. Enzymes like cholinesterases, peroxidases, tyrosinases, etc. have been immobilized on electrochemical and optical transducers and the enzymatic activity decreasing in the presence of the inhibitor is related with its concentrations. This article presents a review on the enzymes used on the construction of these sensors, emphasizing the respective applications.

Esterase patterns and phylogenetic relationships of Drosophila species in the saltans subgroup (saltans group)

The esterase patterns of sixteen strains from four species in the saltans subgroup were analyzed using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Thirty-four esterase bands were detected. By using alpha and beta naphthyl acetates as substrates, they were classified in 18 alpha-esterases (they hydrolyse the alpha-naphtyl substrate), 15 beta-esterases (they hydrolyse the beta-naphtyl substrate) and 1 alpha/beta-esterase (it hydrolyses the alpha and beta-naphtyl substrates). Among the alpha-esterases, three were detected exclusively in males. Malathion, Eserine and pCMB were used as inhibitors in order to characterize biochemically the esterases. The results indicated the presence of cholinesterases, carboxylesterases and acetylesterases. The degree of mobility of the bands in the gels, their specificity to alpha and beta naphthyl acetates and the results of the inhibition tests allowed us to recognize tentatively nine genetic loci. Phylogenetic relationships among species inferred on the basis of the esterase patterns by PAUP 4.0 b8, with neighbor-joining search and a bootstrap analysis showed that, although the four species are closely related, D. septentriosaltans, D. saltans and D. austrosaltans are closer to each other than to D. prosaltans. These results showed to be consistent with phylogenetic relationships previously inferred from inversion polymorphism.

Characterization of esterases in a Brazilian population of Zaprionus indianus (Diptera : Drosophilidae)

The aim of this study was to characterize esterases in Zaprionus indianus, a drosophilid recently introduced into Brazil. A further aim was study the variation of activity of esterases in the presence of inhibitors and their expression according to sex, sexual activity and age of individual flies. Polymorphisms were detected in two esterase loci (Est-2 and Est-3) and monomorphisms in four others (Est-1, Est-4, Est-5 and Est-6). Biochemical tests using alpha- and beta-naphthyl acetate and the inhibitors malathion, eserine sulphate and PMSF allowed us to classify EST-2 and EST-5 as beta-esterases, both carboxyl-esterases, and EST-1, EST-3, EST-4 and EST-6 as alpha-esterases. EST-1 and EST-3 were classified as carboxyl-esterases and EST-4 and EST-6 as cholinesterases. EST-5 activity was more pronounced in males and EST-2 was restricted to them or to recently copulated females. EST-4, rarely detected, was not characterized. Based on their biochemical characteristics possible roles for these enzymes are suggested.

Detection of carbamate pesticides in vegetable samples using cholinesterase-based biosensors

Biosensors for determination of carbamates in vegetables based on five different cholinesterases as biorecognition elements and a screen-printed electrode system as an amperometric transducer were developed. Measurements were simply performed by dropping solutions (either sample or substrate) directly on the biosensor. The response of biosensors to selected carbamates (aldicarb, carbaryl, carbofuran, methomyl and propoxur) was characterized. The performance was evaluated on extracts of potatoes and carrots, the results from the AChE biosensor and a standard HPLC procedure were compared. Finally, the biosensor was used for the direct analysis of vegetable juices without any pretreatment steps. In this case, 10 mu g/L levels of added carbofuran and propoxur were reliably identified. The whole procedure takes less than 20 min including 10 min incubation with samples. The concentrations of carbamates determined with biosensor agreed well for carbofuran. Lower response was observed for propoxur.

Genetic variation along time in a brazilian population of Aedes aegypti (Diptera : Culicidae), detected by changes in the esterase patterns

Aedes aegypti from the Brazilian cities of Sao Jose do Rio Preto (SJ) and Goiania (GO) were analyzed as to their esterase patterns and the results were compared with data obtained about 5 years before for SJ population. Esterase bands not detected in the previous study were now observed in mosquitoes from both SJ and GO populations, being the last considered a population resistant to insecticides. Other similarities between SJ and GO populations in this study, and some differences in comparison with the previous data on SJ were observed, involving, in addition to changes in band type, changes in frequency of mosquitoes expressing them and differential gene activation during development. As it is generally true for genetic features, changes in the esterase patterns are expected to be the result of factors such as selection by environmental conditions and genetic drift. In the present case, continuous use of insecticides aiming mosquito population size control in SJ by sanitary authorities could be involved in the observed changes. Changed esterases were classified as carboxylesterases and cholinesterases, which are enzymes already shown to take part in the development of resistance in several organisms. In addition, data obtained in the elapsed time by authorities responsible for the mosquito control has shown increasing insecticide resistance of SJ population mosquitoes parallel to increase in the total amount of esterases, reinforcing the mentioned possibility.

Variability of esterase patterns in adult flies of the saltans species group of Drosophila (subgenus Sophophora)

Esterases are known for their involvement in several physiological processes and high degree of polymorphism, in many organisms. Such polymorphism has been used to characterize species and species groups and to study genetic changes occurred in their evolutionary history. In the present study, the esterase patterns of 19 strains from 10 species representative of the five subgroups of the saltans species group were analyzed using polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and alpha- and beta- naphthyl acetates as substrates. Fifty-one esterase bands were detected and classified as 31 alpha-esterases, 18 beta-esterases and two alpha/beta-esterases. on the basis of the inhibition patterns using Malathion and eserine sulfate, 34 bands were classified as carboxylesterases, 14 as acethylesterases and three as cholinesterases. Ten gene loci were tentatively established on the basis of data on band position in the gel, substrate preference and inhibition pattern. Twenty bands were species-specific, the remaining being shared by species from the same or different subgroups. Bands detected exclusively in males and bands with a different frequency or degree of expression between sexes were also detected. In the gels prepared for analysis of gene expression in the body parts (head, thorax and abdomen), the degree of expression of the beta-esterases was higher in the thorax, while the alpha-esterases were expressed predominantly in the abdomen and thorax. A global view of the data available at present on the esterases of the species from the saltans group and their degree of polymorphism are presented, as well as the possibility of using some beta-esterases, because of their characteristics in the gels, as markers for species identification.