Bcl-xL regulation and function in cell cycle checkpoints and progression

Quelques évidences suggèrent que Bcl-xL, un membre anti-apoptotique de la famille Bcl-2, possède également des fonctions au niveau du cycle cellulaire et de ses points-contrôle. Pour étudier la régulation et fonction de Bcl-xL au cours du cycle cellulaire, nous avons généré et exprimé dans des cellules humaines une série de mutants de phosphorylation incluant Thr41Ala, Ser43Ala, Thr47Ala, Ser49Ala, Ser56Ala, Ser62Ala et Thr115Ala. L'analyse de cette série de mutants révèle que les cellules exprimant Bcl-xL(Ser62Ala) sont moins stables au point-contrôle G2 du cycle cellulaire comparées aux cellules exprimant le type sauvage ou les autres mutants de phosphorylation incluant Thr41Ala, Ser43Ala, Thr47Ala, Ser56Ala et Thr115Ala. Les études de cinétiques de phosphorylation et de localisation de phospho-Bcl-xL(Ser62) dans des cellules synchronisées et suite à l'activation du point-contrôle en G2 médié par l'étoposide (VP16), nous indiquent que phospho-Bcl-xL(Ser62) migre dans les corps nucléolaires durant l'arrêt en G2 dans les cellules exposées au VP16. Une série d'expériences incluant des essais kinase in vitro, l'utilisation d'inhibiteurs pharmacologiques et d'ARN interférant, nous révèlent que Polo kinase 1 (PLK1) et MAPK9/JNK2 sont les protéines kinase impliquées dans la phosphorylation de Bcl-xL(Ser62), et pour son accumulation dans les corps nucléolaires pendant le point-contrôle en G2. Nos résultats indiquent que durant le point-contrôle en G2, phospho-Bcl-xL(Ser62) se lie et se co-localise avec CDK1(CDC2), le complexe cycline-kinase qui contrôle l'entrée en mitose. Nos résultats suggèrent que dans les corps nucléolaires, phospho-Bcl-xL(Ser62) stabilise l'arrêt en G2 en séquestrant CDK1(CDC2) pour retarder l'entrée en mitose. Ces résultats soulignent également que les dommages à l'ADN influencent la composition des corps nucléolaires, structure nucléaire qui émerge maintenant comme une composante importante de la réponse aux dommages à l'ADN. Dans une deuxième étude, nous décrivons que les cellules exprimant le mutant de phosphorylation Bcl-xL(Ser62Ala) sont également plus stables au point-contrôle de l'assemblage du fuseau de la chromatine (SAC) suite à une exposition au taxol, comparées aux cellules exprimant le type sauvage ou d'autres mutants de phosphorylation de Bcl-xL, incluant Thr41Ala, Ser43Ala, Thr47Ala, Ser56Ala. Cet effet est indépendent de la fonction anti-apoptotique de Bcl-xL. Bcl-xL(Ser62) est fortement phosphorylé par PLK1 et MAPK14/SAPKp38α à la prométaphase, la métaphase et à la frontière de l'anaphase, et déphosphorylé à la télophase et la cytokinèse. Phospho-Bcl-xL(Ser62) se trouve dans les centrosomes avec γ-tubuline, le long du fuseau mitotique avec la protéine moteure dynéine et dans le cytosol mitotique avec des composantes du SAC. Dans des cellules exposées au taxol, phospho-Bcl-xL(Ser62) se lie au complexe inhibiteur CDC20/MAD2/BUBR1/BUB3, alors que le mutant Bcl-xL(Ser62Ala) ne se lie pas à ce complexe. Ces résultats indiquent que durant le SAC, la phosphorylation de Bcl-xL(Ser62) accélère la résolution du SAC et l'entrée des cellules en anaphase. Des expériences bloquant l'expression de Bcl-xL révèlent ègalement un taux très élevé de cellules tétraploïdes et binuclées après un traitement au nocodazole, consistant avec une fonction de Bcl-xL durant la mitose et dans la stabilité génomique. Dans la troisième étude, l'analyse fonctionnelle de cette série de mutants de phosphorylation indique également que les cellules exprimant Bcl-xL(Ser49Ala) sont moins stables durant le point-contrôle G2 et entre en cytokinèse plus lentement dans des cellules exposées aux inhibiteurs de la polymérisation/dépolymérisation des tubulines, composantes des microtubules. Ces effets de Bcl-xL(Ser49Ala) sont indépendents de sa fonction anti-apoptotique. La phosphorylation de Bcl-xL(Ser49) est dynamique au cours du cycle cellulaire. Dans des cellules synchronisées, Bcl-xL(Ser49) est phosphorylé en phase S et G2, déphosphorylé à la prométaphase, la métaphase et à la frontière de l'anaphase, et re-phosphorylé durant la télophase et la cytokinèse. Au cours du point-contrôle G2 induit par les dommages à l'ADN, un pool important de phospho-Bcl-xL(Ser49) se trouve aux centrosomes, un site important pour la régulation de l'entrée en mitose. Durant la télophase et la cytokinèse, phospho-Bcl-xL(Ser49) se trouve le long des microtubules avec la protéine moteure dynéine et dans le cytosol mitotique. Finalement, nos résultats suggèrent que PLK3 est responsable de la phosphorylation de Bcl-xL(Ser49), une protéine kinase impliquée pour l'entrée des cellules en mitose et pour la progression de la mitose jusqu'à la division cellulaire.

p53 controls both the G2/M and the G1 cell cycle checkpoints and mediates reversible growth arrest in human fibroblasts.

Increased expression of wild-type p53 in response to DNA damage arrests cells late in the G1 stage of the cell cycle by stimulating the synthesis of inhibitors of cyclin-dependent kinases, such as p21/WAF1. To study the effects of p53 without the complication of DNA damage, we used tetracycline to regulate its expression in MDAH041 human fibroblasts that lack endogenous p53. When p53 is expressed at a level comparable to that induced by DNA damage in other cells, most MDAH041 cells arrested in G1, but a significant fraction also arrested in G2/M. Cells released from a mimosine block early in S phase stopped predominantly in G2/M in the presence of p53, confirming that p53 can mediate arrest at this stage, as well as in G1. In these cells, there was appreciable induction of p21/WAF1. MDAH041 cells arrested by tetracycline-regulated p53 for as long as 20 days resumed growth when the p53 level was lowered, in striking contrast to the irreversible arrest mediated by DNA damage. Therefore, irreversible arrest must involve processes other than or in addition to the interaction of p53-induced p21/WAF1 with G1 and G2 cyclin-dependent kinases.

Inhibition of protein kinase B activity induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis during early G₁ phase in CHO cells.

Inhibition of PKB (protein kinase B) activity using a highly selective PKB inhibitor resulted in inhibition of cell cycle progression only if cells were in early G1 phase at the time of addition of the inhibitor, as demonstrated by time-lapse cinematography. Addition of the inhibitor during mitosis up to 2 h after mitosis resulted in arrest of the cells in early G1 phase, as deduced from the expression of cyclins D and A and incorporation of thymidine. After 24 h of cell cycle arrest, cells expressed the cleaved caspase-3, a central mediator of apoptosis. These results demonstrate that PKB activity in early G1 phase is required to prevent the induction of apoptosis. Using antibodies, it was demonstrated that active PKB translocates to the nucleus during early G1 phase, while an even distribution of PKB was observed through cytoplasm and nucleus during the end of G1 phase.

The role of ATM in the cell cycle control of V(D)J recombination

Lymphocyte development requires the assembly of diversified antigen receptor complexes generated by the genetically programmed V(D)J recombination event. Because germline DNA is cut, introducing potentially dangerous double-stranded breaks (DSBs) and rearranged prior to repair, its activity is limited to the non-cycling stages of the cell cycle, G0/G1. The potential involvement of a key mediator, Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated or ATM, in the DNA damage response (DDR) and cell cycle checkpoints has been implicated in recombination, but its role is not fully understood. Thymic lymphomas from ATM deficient mice contain clonal chromosomal translocations involving the T-cell antigen receptor (TCR). A previous report found ATM and its downstream target p53 associated with V(D)J intermediates, suggesting the DDR senses recombination. In this study, we sought to understand the role of ATM in V(D)J recombination. Developing thymocytes from ATM deficient mice were analyzed according to the cell cycle to detect V(D)J intermediates. Examination of all TCR loci in the non-cycling (G0/G1) and cycling (S/G2/M) fractions revealed the persistence of intermediates in ATM deficient thymocytes, contrary to the wild-type in which intermediates are found only during G0/G1. Further analysis found no defect in end-joining of intermediates, nor were they detected in developed T-cells. Based upon the presence of persisting intermediates, the recombination initiating nuclease Rag-2 was examined; strict regulation limits it to G 0/G1. Rag-2 regulation was not affected by an ATM deficiency as Rag-2 expression remained contained within G0/G 1, indicating recombination is not continuous. To determine if an ATM deficiency affects recognition of V(D)J breaks, sites of recombination identified by a TCR locus or Rag expression were analyzed according to co-localization with a DDR factor phosphorylated immediately after DNA damage, phosphorylated H2AX (γH2AX). No differences in co-localization were found between the wild-type and ATM deficiency, demonstrating ATM deficient lymphocytes retain the ability to recognize DSBs. Together, these results suggest ATM is necessary in the cell cycle regulation of recombination but not essential for the identification of V(D)J breaks. ATM ensures the containment of intermediates within G0/G1 and maintains genomic stability of developing lymphocytes, emphasizing its fundamental role in preventing tumorigenesis.^

GADD45 induction of a G2/M cell cycle checkpoint

G1/S and G2/M cell cycle checkpoints maintain genomic stability in eukaryotes in response to genotoxic stress. We report here both genetic and functional evidence of a Gadd45-mediated G2/M checkpoint in human and murine cells. Increased expression of Gadd45 via microinjection of an expression vector into primary human fibroblasts arrests the cells at the G2/M boundary with a phenotype of MPM2 immunopositivity, 4n DNA content and, in 15% of the cells, centrosome separation. The Gadd45-mediated G2/M arrest depends on wild-type p53, because no arrest was observed either in p53-null Li–Fraumeni fibroblasts or in normal fibroblasts coexpressed with p53 mutants. Increased expression of cyclin B1 and Cdc25C inhibited the Gadd45-mediated G2/M arrest in human fibroblasts, indicating that the mechanism of Gadd45-mediated G2/M checkpoint is at least in part through modulation of the activity of the G2-specific kinase, cyclin B1/p34cdc2. Genetic and physiological evidence of a Gadd45-mediated G2/M checkpoint was obtained by using GADD45-deficient human or murine cells. Human cells with endogenous Gadd45 expression reduced by antisense GADD45 expression have an impaired G2/M checkpoint after exposure to either ultraviolet radiation or methyl methanesulfonate but are still able to undergo G2 arrest after ionizing radiation. Lymphocytes from gadd45-knockout mice (gadd45 −/−) also retained a G2/M checkpoint initiated by ionizing radiation and failed to arrest at G2/M after exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Therefore, the mammalian genome is protected by a multiplicity of G2/M checkpoints in response to specific types of DNA damage.

DNA damage and p53-mediated cell cycle arrest: A reevaluation

Most mammalian cells exhibit transient delays in the G1 and G2 phases of the cell cycle after treatment with radiation or radiomimetic compounds. p53 is required for the arrest in G1, which provides time for DNA repair. Recently, a role of p53 in the G2/M transition has also been suggested. However, it has been reported that the presence of functional p53 does not always correlate with the induction of these checkpoints. To precisely assess the role of p53 in activating cell cycle checkpoints and in cell survival after radiation, we studied the response of two isogenic human fibrosarcoma cell lines differing in their p53 status (wild type or mutant). We found that when irradiated cells undergo a wild-type p53-dependent G1 arrest, they do not subsequently arrest in G2. Moreover, wild-type p53 cells irradiated past the G1 checkpoint arrest in G2 but do not delay in the subsequent G1 phase. Furthermore, in these cell lines, which do not undergo radiation-induced apoptosis, the wild-type p53 cell line exhibited a greater radioresistance in terms of clonogenic survival. These results suggest that the two checkpoints may be interrelated, perhaps through a control system that determines, depending on the extent of the damage, whether the cell needs to arrest cell cycle progression at the subsequent checkpoint for further repair. p53 could be a crucial component of this control system.

Exploration of the cell-cycle genes found within the RIKEN FANTOM2 data set

The cell cycle is one of the most fundamental processes within a cell. Phase-dependent expression and cell-cycle checkpoints require a high level of control. A large number of genes with varying functions and modes of action are responsible for this biology. In a targeted exploration of the FANTOM2-Variable Protein Set, a number of mouse homologs to known cell-cycle regulators as well as novel members of cell-cycle families were identified. Focusing on two prototype cell-cycle families, the cyclins and the NIMA-related kinases (NEKs), we believe we have identified all of the mouse members of these families, 24 cyclins and 10 NEKs, and mapped them to ENSEMBL transcripts. To attempt to globally identify all potential cell cycle-related genes within mouse, the MGI (Mouse Genome Database) assignments for the RIKEN Representative Set (RPS) and the results from two homology-based queries were merged. We identified 1415 genes with possible cell-cycle roles, and 1758 potential paralogs. We comment on the genes identified in this screen and evaluate the merits of each approach.

Regulation of cell cycle and stress responses to hydrostatic pressure in fission yeast

We have investigated the cellular responses to hydrostatic pressure by using the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe as a model system. Exposure to sublethal levels of hydrostatic pressure resulted in G2 cell cycle delay. This delay resulted from Cdc2 tyrosine-15 (Y-15) phosphorylation, and it was abrogated by simultaneous disruption of the Cdc2 kinase regulators Cdc25 and Wee1. However, cell cycle delay was independent of the DNA damage, cytokinesis, and cell size checkpoints, suggesting a novel mechanism of Cdc2-Y15 phosphorylation in response to hydrostatic pressure. Spc1/Sty1 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase, a conserved member of the eukaryotic stress-activated p38, mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase family, was rapidly activated after pressure stress, and it was required for cell cycle recovery under these conditions, in part through promoting polo kinase (Plo1) phosphorylation on serine 402. Moreover, the Spc1 MAP kinase pathway played a key role in maintaining cell viability under hydrostatic pressure stress through the bZip transcription factor, Atf1. Further analysis revealed that prestressing cells with heat increased barotolerance, suggesting adaptational cross-talk between these stress responses. These findings provide new insight into eukaryotic homeostasis after exposure to pressure stress.

New DAG-dependent mechanisms modulate cell cycle progression

Through the years, several studies reported the involvement of nuclear lipid signalling as highly connected with cell cycle progression. Indeed, nuclear Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-Biphosphate (PIP2) hydrolisis mediated by Phospholipases C (PLC), which leads to production of the second messengers Diacylglycerol (DAG) and Inositol-1,4,5-Triphosphate (IP3), is a fundamental event for both G1/S and G2/M checkpoints. In particular, we found that nuclear DAG production was mediated by PLCbeta1, enzyme mainly localized in the nucleus of K562 human erythroleukemia cells. This event triggered the activation and nuclear translocation of PKCalpha, which, in turn, resulted able to affect cell cycle via modulation of Cyclin D3 and Cyclin B1, two important enzymes for G1/S transition and G2/M progression respectively.

Arabidopsis WEE1 kinase controls cell cycle arrest in response to activation of the DNA integrity checkpoint

Upon the incidence of DNA stress, the ataxia telangiectasia-mutated (ATM) and Rad3-related (ATR) signaling kinases activate a transient cell cycle arrest that allows cells to repair DNA before proceeding into mitosis. Although the ATM-ATR pathway is highly conserved over species, the mechanisms by which plant cells stop their cell cycle in response to the loss of genome integrity are unclear. We demonstrate that the cell cycle regulatory WEE1 kinase gene of Arabidopsis thaliana is transcriptionally activated upon the cessation of DNA replication or DNA damage in an ATR- or ATM-dependent manner, respectively. In accordance with a role for WEE1 in DNA stress signaling, WEE1-deficient plants showed no obvious cell division or endoreduplication phenotype when grown under nonstress conditions but were hypersensitive to agents that impair DNA replication. Induced WEE1 expression inhibited plant growth by arresting dividing cells in the G2-phase of the cell cycle. We conclude that the plant WEE1 gene is not rate-limiting for cycle progression under normal growth conditions but is a critical target of the ATR-ATM signaling cascades that inhibit the cell cycle upon activation of the DNA integrity checkpoints, coupling mitosis to DNA repair in cells that suffer DNA damage.

A theory for controlling cell cycle dynamics using a reversibly binding inhibitor

We demonstrate, by using mathematical modeling of cell division cycle (CDC) dynamics, a potential mechanism for precisely controlling the frequency of cell division and regulating the size of a dividing cell. Control of the cell cycle is achieved by artificially expressing a protein that reversibly binds and inactivates any one of the CDC proteins. In the simplest case, such as the checkpoint-free situation encountered in early amphibian embryos, the frequency of CDC oscillations can be increased or decreased by regulating the rate of synthesis, the binding rate, or the equilibrium constant of the binding protein. In a more complex model of cell division, where size-control checkpoints are included, we show that the same reversible binding reaction can alter the mean cell mass in a continuously dividing cell. Because this control scheme is general and requires only the expression of a single protein, it provides a practical means for tuning the characteristics of the cell cycle in vivo.

cDNA cloning and gene mapping of a candidate human cell cycle checkpoint protein.

A family of proteins involved in cell cycle progression, DNA recombination, and the detection of DNA damage has been recently identified. One of the members of this family, human ATM, is defective in the cells of patients with ataxia telangiectasia and is involved in detection and response of cells to damaged DNA. Other members include Mei-41 (Drosophila melanogaster), Mec1p (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), and Rad3 (Schizosaccharomyces pombe), which are required for the S and G2/M checkpoints, as well as FRAP (Homo sapiens) and Torl/2p (S. cerevisiae), which are involved in a rapamycin-sensitive pathway leading to G1 cell cycle progression. We report here the cloning of a human cDNA encoding a protein with significant homology to members of this family. Three overlapping clones isolated from a Jurkat T-cell cDNA library revealed a 7.9-kb open reading frame encoding a protein that we have named FRP1 (FRAP-related protein) with 2644 amino acids and a predicted molecular mass of 301 kDa. Using fluorescence in situ hybridization and a full-length cDNA FRP1 clone, the FRP1 gene has been mapped to the chromosomal locus 3q22-q24. FRP1 is most closely related to three of the PIK-related kinase family members involved in checkpoint function--Mei-41, Mec1p, and Rad3--and as such may be the functional human counterpart of these proteins.

Interplay Between Cell Growth And Cell Cycle In Plants.

The growth of organs and whole plants depends on both cell growth and cell-cycle progression, but the interaction between both processes is poorly understood. In plants, the balance between growth and cell-cycle progression requires coordinated regulation of four different processes: macromolecular synthesis (cytoplasmic growth), turgor-driven cell-wall extension, mitotic cycle, and endocycle. Potential feedbacks between these processes include a cell-size checkpoint operating before DNA synthesis and a link between DNA contents and maximum cell size. In addition, key intercellular signals and growth regulatory genes appear to target at the same time cell-cycle and cell-growth functions. For example, auxin, gibberellin, and brassinosteroid all have parallel links to cell-cycle progression (through S-phase Cyclin D-CDK and the anaphase-promoting complex) and cell-wall functions (through cell-wall extensibility or microtubule dynamics). Another intercellular signal mediated by microtubule dynamics is the mechanical stress caused by growth of interconnected cells. Superimposed on developmental controls, sugar signalling through the TOR pathway has recently emerged as a central control point linking cytoplasmic growth, cell-cycle and cell-wall functions. Recent progress in quantitative imaging and computational modelling will facilitate analysis of the multiple interconnections between plant cell growth and cell cycle and ultimately will be required for the predictive manipulation of plant growth.

Polymorphisms Of Cell Cycle Control Genes Influence The Development Of Sporadic Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma.

The role of key cell cycle regulation genes such as, CDKN1B, CDKN2A, CDKN2B, and CDKN2C in sporadic medullary thyroid carcinoma (s-MTC) is still largely unknown. In order to evaluate the influence of inherited polymorphisms of these genes on the pathogenesis of s-MTC, we used TaqMan SNP genotyping to examine 45 s-MTC patients carefully matched with 98 controls. A multivariate logistic regression analysis demonstrated that CDKN1B and CDKN2A genes were related to s-MTC susceptibility. The rs2066827*GT+GG CDKN1B genotype was more frequent in s-MTC patients (62.22%) than in controls (40.21%), increasing the susceptibility to s-MTC (OR=2.47; 95% CI=1.048-5.833; P=0.038). By contrast, the rs11515*CG+GG of CDKN2A gene was more frequent in the controls (32.65%) than in patients (15.56%), reducing the risk for s-MTC (OR=0.174; 95% CI=0.048-0.627; P=0.0075). A stepwise regression analysis indicated that two genotypes together could explain 11% of the total s-MTC risk. In addition, a relationship was found between disease progression and the presence of alterations in the CDKN1A (rs1801270), CDKN2C (rs12885), and CDKN2B (rs1063192) genes. WT rs1801270 CDKN1A patients presented extrathyroidal tumor extension more frequently (92%) than polymorphic CDKN1A rs1801270 patients (50%; P=0.0376). Patients with the WT CDKN2C gene (rs12885) presented larger tumors (2.9±1.8 cm) than polymorphic patients (1.5±0.7 cm; P=0.0324). On the other hand, patients with the polymorphic CDKN2B gene (rs1063192) presented distant metastases (36.3%; P=0.0261). In summary, we demonstrated that CDKN1B and CDKN2A genes are associated with susceptibility, whereas the inherited genetic profile of CDKN1A, CDKN2B, and CDKN2C is associated with aggressive features of tumors. This study suggests that profiling cell cycle genes may help define the risk and characterize s-MTC aggressiveness.