Guidelines on the management of implantable cardioverter defibrillators at the end of life

El presente artículo es un documento conjunto de la Sociedad Española de Geriatría y Gerontología, la Sociedad Española de Cuidados Paliativos y la Sección de Cardiología Geriátrica de la Sociedad Española de Cardiología. Su objetivo es paliar la laguna que existe en España en lo que respecta al manejo de los desfibriladores automáticos implantables (DAI) en las fases finales de la vida. Cada vez es más frecuente encontrarse enfermos portadores de DAI en fase terminal de una enfermedad avanzada, como insuficiencia cardíaca refractaria, enfermedades oncológicas, otras insuficiencias orgánicas o enfermedades neurodegenerativas con mal pronóstico a corto plazo. La enorme mayoría de estos pacientes tiene más de 65 años, por ello el documento se enfoca de forma particular a los ancianos que se encuentran en esta situación, aunque el proceso de toma de decisiones es similar en portadores de DAI más jóvenes que están en la fase final de su vida.

Heart Rhythm UK position statement on clinical indications for implantable cardioverter defibrillators in adult patients with familial sudden cardiac death syndromes

Whilst the decision regarding defibrillator implantation in a patient with a familial sudden cardiac death syndrome is likely to be most significant for any particular individual, the clinical decision-making process itself is complex and requires interpretation and extrapolation of information from a number of different sources. This document provides recommendations for adult patients with the congenital Long QT syndromes, Brugada syndrome, catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, and arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. Although these specific conditions differ in terms of clinical features and prognosis, it is possible and logical to take an approach to determining a threshold for implantable cardioveter-defibrillator implantation that is common to all of the familial sudden cardiac death syndromes based on estimates of absolute risk of sudden death. Published on behalf of the European Society of Cardiology. © The Author 2010.

Consensus statement of the European Heart Rhythm Association: updated recommendations for driving by patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators

Patients with an implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) have an ongoing risk of sudden incapacitation that might cause harm to others while driving a car. Driving restrictions vary across different countries in Europe. The most recent recommendations for driving of ICD patients in Europe were published in 1997 and focused mainly on patients implanted for secondary prevention. In recent years there has been a vast increase in the number of patients with an ICD and in the percentage of patients implanted for primary prevention. The EHRA task force on ICD and driving was formed to reassess the risk of driving for ICD patients based on the literature available. The recommendations are summarized in the following table and are further explained in the document, (Table see text). Driving restrictions are perceived as difficult for patients and their families, and have an immediate consequence for their lifestyle. To increase the adherence to the driving restrictions, adequate discharge of education and follow-up of patients and family are pivotal. The task force members hope this document may serve as an instrument for European and national regulatory authorities to formulate uniform driving regulations.

Consensus statement of the European Heart Rhythm Association: updated recommendations for driving by patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators

Patients with an implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) have an ongoing risk of sudden incapacitation that might cause harm to others while driving a car. Driving restrictions vary across different countries in Europe. The most recent recommendations for driving of ICD patients in Europe were published in 1997 and focused mainly on patients implanted for secondary prevention. In recent years there has been a vast increase in the number of patients with an ICD and in the percentage of patients implanted for primary prevention. The EHRA task force on ICD and driving was formed to reassess the risk of driving for ICD patients based on the literature available. The recommendations are summarized in the following table and are further explained in the document. [table: see text] Driving restrictions are perceived as difficult for patients and their families, and have an immediate consequence for their lifestyle. To increase the adherence to the driving restrictions, adequate discharge of education and follow-up of patients and family are pivotal. The task force members hope this document may serve as an instrument for European and national regulatory authorities to formulate uniform driving regulations.

Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators in the elderly: rationale and specific age-related considerations

Despite the increasingly high rate of implantation of cardioverter-defibrillators (ICD) in elderly patients, data supporting their clinical and cost-effectiveness in this age stratum are ambiguous and contradictory. We comprehensively reviewed the state-of-the-art data regarding the applicability, safety, clinical- and cost-effectiveness of the ICD in elderly patients, and analysed which patients in this age stratum are more likely to get a survival benefit from this therapy. Although peri-procedural risk may be slightly higher in the elderly, this procedure is still relatively safe in this age group. In terms of correcting potentially life-threatening arrhythmias, the effectiveness of ICD therapy is comparable in older and younger individuals. However, the assumption of persistent ICD benefit in the elderly population is questionable, as any advantage of the device on arrhythmic death may be largely attenuated by a higher total non-arrhythmic mortality. While septuagenarians and octogenarians have higher annual all-cause mortality rates, ICD therapy may remain effective in highly selected patients at high risk of arrhythmic death and with minimum comorbidities despite advanced age. ICD intervention among the elderly, as a group, may not be cost-effective, but the procedure may reach cost-effectiveness in those expected to live >5-7 years after implantation. Biological age rather than chronological age per se should be the decisive factor in making a decision on ICD selection for survival benefit.

Influence of Remote Monitoring on Long-Term Cardiovascular Outcomes after Cardioverter-Defibrillator Implantation

AIMS: Device-based remote monitoring (RM) has been linked to improved clinical outcomes at short to medium-term follow-up. Whether this benefit extends to long-term follow-up is unknown. We sought to assess the effect of device-based RM on long-term clinical outcomes in recipients of implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICD). METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study of consecutive patients who underwent ICD implantation for primary prevention. RM was initiated with patient consent according to availability of RM hardware at implantation. Patients with concomitant cardiac resynchronization therapy were excluded. Data on hospitalizations, mortality and cause of death were systematically assessed using a nationwide healthcare platform. A Cox proportional hazards model was employed to estimate the effect of RM on mortality and a composite endpoint of cardiovascular mortality and hospital admission due to heart failure (HF). RESULTS: 312 patients were included with a median follow-up of 37.7months (range 1 to 146). 121 patients (38.2%) were under RM since the first outpatient visit post-ICD and 191 were in conventional follow-up. No differences were found regarding age, left ventricular ejection fraction, heart failure etiology or NYHA class at implantation. Patients under RM had higher long-term survival (hazard ratio [HR] 0.50, CI 0.27-0.93, p=0.029) and lower incidence of the composite outcome (HR 0.47, CI 0.27-0.82, p=0.008). After multivariate survival analysis, overall survival was independently associated with younger age, higher LVEF, NYHA class lower than 3 and RM. CONCLUSION: RM was independently associated with increased long-term survival and a lower incidence of a composite endpoint of hospitalization for HF or cardiovascular mortality.

Long-Term Follow-Up of Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator for Secondary Prevention in Chagas' Heart Disease

Assessing the efficacy of implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICD) in patients with Chagas' heart disease (ChHD) and identifying the clinical predictors of mortality and ICD shock during long-term follow-up. ChHD is associated with ventricular tachyarrhythmias and an increased risk of sudden cardiac death. Although ChHD is a common form of cardiomyopathy in Latin American ICD users, little is known about its efficacy in the treatment of this population. The study cohort included 116 consecutive patients with ChHD and an ICD implanted for secondary prevention. Of the 116 patients, 83 (72%) were men; the mean age was 54 +/- 10.7 years. Several clinical variables were tested in a multivariate Cox model for predicting long-term mortality. The average follow-up was 45 +/- 32 months. New York Heart Association class I-II developed in 83% of patients. The mean left ventricular ejection fraction was 42 +/- 16% at implantation. Of the 116 patients, 58 (50%) had appropriate shocks and 13 (11%) had inappropriate therapy. A total of 31 patients died (7.1% annual mortality rate). New York Heart Association class III (hazard ratio [HR] 3.09, 95% confidence interval 1.37 to 6.96, p = 0.0064) was a predictor of a worse prognosis. The left ventricular ejection fraction (HR 0.972, 95% confidence interval 0.94 to 0.99, p = 0.0442) and low cumulative right ventricular pacing (HR 0.23, 95% confidence interval 0.11 to 0.49, p = 0.0001) were predictors of better survival. The left ventricular diastolic diameter was an independent predictor of appropriate shock (I-ER 1.032, 95% confidence interval 1.004 to 1.060, p = 0.025). In conclusion, in a long-term follow-up, ICD efficacy for secondary sudden cardiac death prevention in patients with ChHD was marked by a favorable annual rate of all-cause mortality (7.1%); 50% of the cohort received appropriate shock therapy. New York Heart Association class III and left ventricular ejection fraction were independent predictors of worse prognosis, and low cumulative right ventricular pacing defined better survival. (C) 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. (Am J Cardiol 2012;110:1040-1045)

Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator and cardiac resynchronization therapy in patients with left ventricular noncompaction

Patients with left ventricular noncompaction (LVNC) have an increased risk for life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias. The benefit from implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICD) in these patients has been investigated only in small series. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to analyze the clinical outcome of a larger population of patients with LVNC who were treated with an ICD.

Implantable devices: issues and challenges

Ageing population and a multitude of neurological and cardiovascular illnesses that cannot be mitigated by medication alone have resulted in a significant growth in the number of patients that require implantable electronic devices. These range from sensors, gastric and cardiac pacemakers, cardioverter defibrillators, to deep brain, nerve, and bone stimulators. Long-term implants present specific engineering challenges, including low energy consumption and stable performance. Resorbable electronics may offer excellent short-term performance without the need for surgical removal. However, most electronic materials have poor bio- and cytocompatibility, resulting in immune reactions and infections. This paper reviews the current situation and highlights challenges for future advancements.

Respiratory monitoring practices during procedural sedation and analgesia in the cardiac catheterisation laboratory could be improved by using capnography to assess ventilation

Background: Procedural sedation and analgesia (PSA) administered by nurses in the cardiac catheterisation laboratory (CCL) is unlikely to yield serious complications. However, the safety of this practice is dependent on timely identification and treatment of depressed respiratory function. Aim: Describe respiratory monitoring in the CCL. Methods: Retrospective medical record audit of adult patients who underwent a procedure in the CCLs of one private hospital in Brisbane during May and June 2010. An electronic database was used to identify subjects and an audit tool ensured data collection was standardised. Results: Nurses administered PSA during 172/473 (37%) procedures including coronary angiographies, percutaneous coronary interventions, electrophysiology studies, radiofrequency ablations, cardiac pacemakers, implantable cardioverter defibrillators, temporary pacing leads and peripheral vascular interventions. Oxygen saturations were recorded during 160/172 (23%) procedures, respiration rate was recorded during 17/172 (10%) procedures, use of oxygen supplementation was recorded during 40/172 (23%) procedures and 13/172 (7.5%; 95% CI=3.59–11.41%) patients experienced oxygen desaturation. Conclusion: Although oxygen saturation was routinely documented, nurses did not regularly record respiration observations. It is likely that surgical draping and the requirement to minimise radiation exposure interfered with nurses’ ability to observe respiration. Capnography could overcome these barriers to respiration assessment as its accurate measurement of exhaled carbon dioxide coupled with the easily interpretable waveform output it produces, which displays a breath-by-breath account of ventilation, enables identification of respiratory depression in real-time. Results of this audit emphasise the need to ascertain the clinical benefits associated with using capnography to assess ventilation during PSA in the CCL.

Implant healing in experimental animal models of diabetes.

Diabetes mellitus is becoming increasingly prevalent worldwide. Additionally, there is an increasing number of patients receiving implantable devices such as glucose sensors and orthopedic implants. Thus, it is likely that the number of diabetic patients receiving these devices will also increase. Even though implantable medical devices are considered biocompatible by the Food and Drug Administration, the adverse tissue healing that occurs adjacent to these foreign objects is a leading cause of their failure. This foreign body response leads to fibrosis, encapsulation of the device, and a reduction or cessation of device performance. A second adverse event is microbial infection of implanted devices, which can lead to persistent local and systemic infections and also exacerbates the fibrotic response. Nearly half of all nosocomial infections are associated with the presence of an indwelling medical device. Events associated with both the foreign body response and implant infection can necessitate device removal and may lead to amputation, which is associated with significant morbidity and cost. Diabetes mellitus is generally indicated as a risk factor for the infection of a variety of implants such as prosthetic joints, pacemakers, implantable cardioverter defibrillators, penile implants, and urinary catheters. Implant infection rates in diabetic patients vary depending upon the implant and the microorganism, however, for example, diabetes was found to be a significant variable associated with a nearly 7.2% infection rate for implantable cardioverter defibrillators by the microorganism Candida albicans. While research has elucidated many of the altered mechanisms of diabetic cutaneous wound healing, the internal healing adjacent to indwelling medical devices in a diabetic model has rarely been studied. Understanding this healing process is crucial to facilitating improved device design. The purpose of this article is to summarize the physiologic factors that influence wound healing and infection in diabetic patients, to review research concerning diabetes and biomedical implants and device infection, and to critically analyze which diabetic animal model might be advantageous for assessing internal healing adjacent to implanted devices.

Recherche économique en santé cardiovasculaire

Les nouvelles technologies médicales contribuent aux dépenses en santé qui ne cessent de croître, alors que les budgets se trouvent limités. L’évaluation économique des technologies devraient permettre d’identifier quelles sont celles qui sont les plus rentables. Malgré cela, plusieurs technologies dont le rapport coût-efficacité reste plutôt limite ou défavorable sont utilisées en médecine moderne et remboursées par notre système public de santé. Ce mémoire se concentre sur deux technologies en santé cardiovasculaire dont le rapport coût-efficacité est plutôt limite mais qui sont fréquemment utilisées au Canada; les tuteurs médicamentés ou pharmaco-actifs et les défibrillateurs cardiaques implantables (DCI). Nous avons fait une évaluation contingente de ces technologies dans le but d’examiner si ce type d’évaluation économique complémentaire pouvait procurer un point de vue nouveau sur la valeur économique et sociétaire des ces technologies. Les résultats de ces deux évaluations indiquent que les patients accordent une grande importance aux bénéfices que procurent ces deux technologies. Nos résultats soutiennent les politiques de santé actuelles de rembourser de façon libérale ces deux technologies.

Resonancia magnética cardiaca: medidas lineales y volumétricas en adultos sanos

Introducción: La gran mayoría de las medidas de normalidad utilizadas para la interpretación de resonancia cardiaca son extrapoladas de las medidas de ecocardiografía. Los limitados registros de medidas de normalidad se encuentran ajustados en poblaciones extranjeras, no hay registros en latinoamericanos. Objetivo: Determinar las dimensiones cardiacas utilizando resonancia magnética en una población de personas sin antecedente médicos con repercusión cardiaca para lograr una muestra de valores que permitan ajustar las medidas de normalidad utilizadas por nuestro servicio. Materiales y métodos: se analizaron 45 sujetos sanos con edad comprendida entre los 21 y 45 años, las adquisiciones se realizaron utilizando un equipo de RM de 1,5 teslas, el análisis de las imágenes se realizó mediante el programa Cardiac Volume Vx. Se evaluaron múltiples parámetros morfofuncionales a través de análisis estadístico por medio del sistema SPSS versión 23. Resultados: Mediciones obtenidas de ventrículo izquierdo principales fueron volumen diastólico en mujeres de 62 ml +/- 7.1 y en hombres de 65 ml +/- 11.2 y fracción de eyección de 60 % +/- 5 en mujeres y de 62 % +/- 9 en hombres. En ventrículo derecho el volumen diastólico final se encontró 81.8 ml +/- 14.6 en mujeres y 100 ml +/- 24.8 en hombres y fracción de eyección de 53 % +/- 17 en mujeres y de 45 % +/- 12 en hombres. Volumen de fin de diástole de 50 +/- 12.7 ml en mujeres y de 49 ml +/- 19 ml en hombres y fracción de eyección de aurícula izquierda de 55 % +/- 0.08 en mujeres y de 50 % +/- 0.07 en hombres. Volumen de fin de diástole de 44.1 ml +/- 18.5 en mujeres y de 49.2 ml +/- 22.9 en hombres y fracción de eyección de aurícula derecha de 50 % +/- 11 en mujeres y de 45 % +/- 8 en hombres. Se obtuvieron otras medidas lineales y volumétricas adicionales de cavidades cardiacas y de grandes vasos supracardiacos. Conclusiones: se describen los valores de referencia de los parámetros morfofuncionales de las cavidades cardiacas y de vasos supracardiacos. El sexo fue tenido en cuenta como covariable relacionada con la modificación de los parámetros evaluados. Se sugieren variaciones en las medidas de cavidades cardiacas para la población estudiada relacionada con aclimatación crónica a la altitud de la ciudad de Bogotá.

Prediction of arrhythmic events after myocardial infarction based on signal-averaged electrocardiogram and ejection fraction

Trials on implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICD) for patients after acute myocardial infarction (AMI) have highlighted the need for risk assessment of arrhythmic events (AE). The aim of this study was to evaluate risk predictors based on a novel approach of interpreting signal-averaged electrocardiogram (SAECG) and ejection fraction (EF).

Prediction of arrhythmic events by Wedensky modulation in patients with coronary artery disease.

PRINCIPLES Prediction of arrhythmic events (AEs) has gained importance with the availability of implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs), but is still imprecise. This study evaluated the innovative Wedensky modulation index (WMI) as predictor of AEs. METHODS In this prospective cohort, 179 patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) referred for AE risk assessment underwent baseline evaluation including measurement of R-/T-wave WMI (WMI(RT)) and left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Two endpoints were assessed 3 years after the baseline evaluation: sudden cardiac death or appropriate ICD event (EP1) and any cardiac death or appropriate ICD event (EP2). Associations between baseline predictors (WMI(RT) and LVEF) and endpoints were evaluated in regression models. RESULTS Only three patients were lost to follow-up. EP1 and EP2 occurred in 24 and 27 patients, respectively. WMI(RT) (odds ratio [OR] per 1 point increase for EP1 20.1, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.8-221.4, p = 0.014, and for EP2 73.3, 95% CI 6.6-817.7, p <0.001) and LVEF (OR per 1% increase for EP1 0.94, 95% CI 0.90-0.99, p = 0.013, and for EP2 0.93, 95% CI 0.89-0.97, p = 0.002) were significantly associated with both endpoints. In bivariable regression controlled for LVEF, WMI(RT) was independently associated with EP1 (p = 0.047) and EP2 (p = 0.007). The combination of WMI(RT) ≥0.60 and LVEF ≤30% resulted in a positive predictive value of 36% for EP1 and 50% for EP2. CONCLUSIONS WMI(RT) is a significant predictor of AEs independent of LVEF and has potential to improve AE risk prediction in CAD patients. However, WMI(RT) should be evaluated in larger and independent samples before recommendations for clinical routine can be made.