HIV-1 tropism and CD4 T lymphocyte recovery in a prospective cohort of patients initiating HAART in Ribeirao Preto, Brazil

While human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 chemokine co-receptors 5 tropism and the GWGR motif in the envelope third variable region (V3 loop) have been associated with a slower disease progression, their influence on antiretroviral response remains unclear. The impact of baseline V3 characteristics on treatment response was evaluated in a randomised, double blind, prospective cohort study with patients initiating highly active antiretroviral therapy with lopinavir or efavirenz plus azithothymidine/3TC (1:1) over 48 weeks. Similar virological and immunological responses were observed for both treatment regimens. The 43 individuals had a mean baseline CD4 T cell count of 119 cells/mm(3) [standard deviation (SD) = 99] and a mean viral load of 5.09 log(10) copies/mL (SD = 0.49). The GWGR motif was not associated with a CD4 T cell response, but predicted R5 tropism by the geno2pheno([clinical20%]) algorithm correlated with higher CD4 T cell levels at all monitoring points (p < 0.05). Moreover, higher false-positive rates (FPR) values from this analysis revealed a strong correlation with CD4 T cell recovery (p < 0.0001). Transmitted drug resistance mutations, documented in 3/41 (7.3%) cases, were unrelated to the assigned antiretroviral regimen and had no impact on patient outcomes. In conclusion, naive HIV-1 R5 infected patients exhibited higher CD4 T cell counts at baseline; this difference was sustained throughout therapy. The geno2pheno[clinical] option FPR positively correlated with CD4 T cell gain and may be useful in predicting CD4 T cell recovery.

Multivalent benzoboroxole functionalized polymers as gp120 glycan targeted microbicide entry inhibitors.

Microbicides are women-controlled prophylactics for sexually transmitted infections. The most important class of microbicides target HIV-1 and contain antiviral agents formulated for topical vaginal delivery. Identification of new viral entry inhibitors that target the HIV-1 envelope is important because they can inactivate HIV-1 in the vaginal lumen before virions can come in contact with CD4+ cells in the vaginal mucosa. Carbohydrate binding agents (CBAs) demonstrate the ability to act as entry inhibitors due to their ability to bind to glycans and prevent gp120 binding to CD4+ cells. However, as proteins they present significant challenges in regard to economical production and formulation for resource-poor environments. We have synthesized water-soluble polymer CBAs that contain multiple benzoboroxole moieties. A benzoboroxole-functionalized monomer was synthesized and incorporated into linear oligomers with 2-hydroxypropylmethacrylamide (HPMAm) at different feed ratios using free radical polymerization. The benzoboroxole small molecule analogue demonstrated weak affinity for HIV-1BaL gp120 by SPR; however, the 25 mol % functionalized benzoboroxole oligomer demonstrated a 10-fold decrease in the K(D) for gp120, suggesting an increased avidity for the multivalent polymer construct. High molecular weight polymers functionalized with 25, 50, and 75 mol % benzoboroxole were synthesized and tested for their ability to neutralize HIV-1 entry for two HIV-1 clades and both R5 and X4 coreceptor tropism. All three polymers demonstrated activity against all viral strains tested with EC(50)s that decrease from 15000 nM (1500 microg mL(-1)) for the 25 mol % functionalized polymers to 11 nM (1 microg mL(-1)) for the 75 mol % benzoboroxole-functionalized polymers. These polymers exhibited minimal cytotoxicity after 24 h exposure to a human vaginal cell line.

Étude de l’évolution du tropisme et de la pression sélective exercée sur le gène de l’enveloppe du virus de l’immunodéficience humaine de type 1 au cours de la grossesse et à l’échelle de la population.

Introduction. Le VIH-1 évolue en fonction de la réponse immunitaire spécifique de l’hôte. La pression sélective exercée par la réponse immunitaire VIH-spécifique de l’hôte entraine l’évolution des gènes viraux et à terme détermine l’évolution de la maladie. Cette évolution du virus à l’échelle d’un individu façonne également l’évolution du virus à l’échelle de la population et détermine le devenir de l’épidémie. Le VIH utilise les corécepteurs d’entrée CCR5 (virus R5) et CXCR4 (virus X4) afin d’infecter la cellule cible, et l’évolution du tropisme du virus de R5 vers X4, appelé switch du tropisme, est associé à la progression de la maladie. Les virus R5 sont rencontrés en début d’infection tandis que les virus X4 apparaissent en fin de maladie chez un certain de nombre de patients et sont considérés comme plus virulents. La pression sélective immunitaire exercée sur le gène de l’enveloppe (env) peut donc entrainer l’évolution du tropisme du VIH. La grossesse est un état immunitaire particulier considéré comme étant principalement caractérisé par un biais Th2 nécessaire à l’établissement de la tolérance materno-fétale. Le switch de tropisme de R5 vers X4 en grossesse n’a jamais été documenté, de même que l’évolution des déterminants du tropisme à l’échelle de la population. Hypothèses. Les changements immunitaires associés à l’initiation et la progression de la grossesse engendrent des changements dans la pression immunitaire exercée sur l’enveloppe et peuvent favoriser le switch du tropisme. L’évolution du tropisme du VIH-1 peut être observé à l’échelle de la population au même titre que l’évolution de l’enveloppe virale. Objectifs. Analyser l’évolution du tropisme et décrire la pression sélective sur l’enveloppe des femmes enceintes infectées par le VIH-1. Analyser l’évolution des déterminants du tropisme à l’échelle de la population. Méthodes. Nous avons dans un premier temps analysé l’évolution des déterminants du tropisme et déterminé le génotype et phénotype du VIH-1 chez 19 femmes enceintes issues de la cohorte du centre maternel et infantile sur le SIDA de l’hôpital Sainte-Justine (CMIS). Nous avons ensuite caractérisé et comparé la pression sélective exercée sur env, par une méthode bayésienne, chez 31 femmes enceinte et 29 femmes non-enceintes. Enfin, nous avons analysé et comparé des déterminants du tropisme entre des séquences d’enveloppe contemporaines et anciennes, issues des bases de données du NCBI. Résultats. Nos résultats montrent la présence de virus X4 chez la moitié de notre cohorte, et un switch de tropisme de R5 vers X4 chez 5/19 sujets. Les séquences des femmes enceintes présentaient des taux de substitutions plus élevées que celles des femmes non-enceintes. La pression sélective dans la région C2 était plus faible chez les femmes enceintes que chez les femmes non-enceintes, et différait dans 4 positions entre ces 2 groupes. Cette sélection diminuait au cours de la grossesse chez les patientes traitées. Enfin, une accumulation de mutations X4 a été observée dans les séquences R5 contemporaines par rapport aux séquences R5 anciennes. Conclusion. Les changements immunitaires associés à la grossesse semblent induire des modifications subtiles dans la pression sélective exercée sur env, suffisant à influencer l’évolution du tropisme de R5 vers X4. Un switch du tropisme à l’échelle de la population impliquerait une épidémie évoluant vers une plus grande virulence du virus. Nos résultats sont d’importance en ce qui concerne la prophylaxie antirétrovirale pour la santé de la mère et la prévention de la transmission mère-enfant du VIH-1. Ils sont aussi importants concernant l’avenir de la thérapie antirétrovirale dans le contexte d’une épidémie évoluant vers une plus grande virulence

Anti-HIV state but not apoptosis depends on IFN signature in CD4+ T cells

To gain insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying early host responses to HIV in the CD4(+) T cell target population, we examined gene expression in CD4(+) T cells isolated 24 h after ex vivo HIV infection of lymphocyte aggregate cultures derived from human tonsils. Gene profiling showed a distinct up-regulation of genes related to immune response and response to virus, notably of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs), irrespective of the coreceptor tropism of the virus. This mostly IFN-alpha-dependent gene signature suggested the involvement of plasmacytoid dendritic cells, a principal component of the antiviral immune response. Indeed, depletion of plasmacytoid dendritic cells before HIV inoculation abrogated transcriptional up-regulation of several ISGs and resulted in increased levels of HIV replication. Treatment with a blocking anti-IFN-alphaR Ab yielded increased HIV replication; conversely, HIV replication was decreased in pDC-depleted cultures treated with IFN-alpha. Among up-regulated ISGs was also TRAIL, indicating a potential role of the IFN signature in apoptosis. However, a blocking anti-TRAIL Ab did not abrogate apoptosis of CD4(+) T cells in CXCR4-tropic HIV-infected cultures, suggesting the involvement of pathways other than TRAIL mediated. We conclude that acute HIV infection of lymphoid tissue results in up-regulation of ISGs in CD4(+) T cells, which induces an anti-HIV state but not apoptosis.

Disease progression in heterosexual patients infected with closely related subtype B strains of HIV type 1 with differing coreceptor usage properties

Previously we described a heterosexual outbreak of HIV-1 subtype B in a town in the north of England (Doncaster) where 11 of 13 infections were shown to be linked by phylogenetic analysis of the env gp120 region. The 11 infections were related to a putative index case, Don1, and further divided into two groups based on the patients' disease status, their viral sequences, and other epidemiological information. Here we describe two further findings. First, we found that viral isolates and gp120 recombinant viruses derived from patients from one group used the CCR5 coreceptor, whereas viruses from the other group could use both the CCR5 and CXCR4 coreceptors. Patients with the X4/R5 dual tropic strains were symptomatic when diagnosed and progressed rapidly, in contrast to the other patient group that has remained asymptomatic, implying a link between the tropism of the strains and disease outcome. Second, we present additional sequence data derived from the index case, demonstrating the presence of sequences from both clades, with an average interclade distance of 9.56%, providing direct evidence of a genetic link between these two groups. This new study shows that Don1 harbored both strains, implying he was either dually infected or that over time intrahost diversification from the R5 to R5/X4 phenotype occurred. These events may account for/have led to the spread of two genetically related strains with different pathogenic properties within the same heterosexual community.

The ability of HIV type 1 to use CCR-3 as a coreceptor is controlled by envelope V1/V2 sequences acting in conjunction with a CCR-5 tropic V3 loop

Although infection by primary HIV type 1 (HIV-1) isolates normally requires the functional interaction of the viral envelope protein with both CD4 and the CCR-5 coreceptor, a subset of such isolates also are able to use the distinct CCR-3 receptor. By analyzing the ability of a series of wild-type and chimeric HIV-1 envelope proteins to mediate CCR-3-dependent infection, we have determined that CCR-3 tropism maps to the V1 and V2 variable region of envelope. Although substitution of the V1/V2 region of a CCR-3 tropic envelope into the context of a CCR-5 tropic envelope is both necessary and sufficient to confer CCR-3 tropism, this same substitution has no phenotypic effect when inserted into a CXCR-4 tropic HIV-1 envelope context. However, this latter chimera acquires both CCR-3 and CCR-5 tropism when a CCR-5 tropic V3 loop sequence also is introduced. These data demonstrate that the V1/2 region of envelope can, like the V3 loop region, encode a particular coreceptor requirement and suggest that a functional envelope:CCR-3 interaction may depend on the cooperative interaction of CCR-3 with both the V1/V2 and the V3 region of envelope.

Natural Hendra Virus Infection in Flying-Foxes - Tissue Tropism and Risk Factors

Hendra virus (HeV) is a lethal zoonotic agent that emerged in 1994 in Australia. Pteropid bats (flying-foxes) are the natural reservoir. To date, HeV has spilled over from flying-foxes to horses on 51 known occasions, and from infected horses to close-contact humans on seven occasions. We undertook screening of archived bat tissues for HeV by reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Tissues were tested from 310 bats including 295 Pteropodiformes and 15 Vespertilioniformes. HeV was detected in 20 individual flying-foxes (6.4%) from various tissues including spleen, kidney, liver, lung, placenta and blood components. Detection was significantly higher in Pteropus Alecto and Pconspicillatus, identifying species as a risk factor for infection. Further, our findings indicate that HeV has a predilection for the spleen, suggesting this organ plays an important role in HeV infection. The lack of detections in the foetal tissues of HeV-positive females suggests that vertical transmission is not a regular mode of transmission in naturally infected flying-foxes, and that placental and foetal tissues are not a major source of infection for horses. A better understanding of HeV tissue tropism will strengthen management of the risk of spillover from flying-foxes to horses and ultimately humans.

In vivo tropism of attenuated and pathogenic measles virus expressing green fluorescent protein in macaques

The global increase in measles vaccination has resulted in a significant reduction of measles mortality. The standard route of administration for the live-attenuated measles virus (MV) vaccine is subcutaneous injection, although alternative needle-free routes, including aerosol delivery, are under investigation. In vitro, attenuated MV has a much wider tropism than clinical isolates, as it can use both CD46 and CD150 as cellular receptors. To compare the in vivo tropism of attenuated and pathogenic MV, we infected cynomolgus macaques with pathogenic or attenuated recombinant MV expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein (GFP) (strains IC323 and Edmonston, respectively) via the intratracheal or aerosol route. Surprisingly, viral loads and cellular tropism in the lungs were similar for the two viruses regardless of the route of administration, and CD11c-positive cells were identified as the major target population. However, only the pathogenic MV caused significant viremia, which resulted in massive virus replication in B and T lymphocytes in lymphoid tissues and viral dissemination to the skin and the submucosa of respiratory epithelia. Attenuated MV was rarely detected in lymphoid tissues, and when it was, only in isolated infected cells. Following aerosol inhalation, attenuated MV was detected at early time points in the upper respiratory tract, suggesting local virus replication. This contrasts with pathogenic MV, which invaded the upper respiratory tract only after the onset of viremia. This study shows that despite in vitro differences, attenuated and pathogenic MV show highly similar in vivo tropism in the lungs. However, systemic spread of attenuated MV is restricted.

Redirection of T cells by delivering a transgenic mouse-derived MDM2 tumor antigen-specific TCR and its humanized derivative is governed by the CD8 coreceptor and affects natural human TCR expression.

Retroviral transfer of T cell antigen receptor (TCR) genes selected by circumventing tolerance to broad tumor- and leukemia-associated antigens in human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A*0201 (A2.1) transgenic (Tg) mice allows the therapeutic reprogramming of human T lymphocytes. Using a human CD8 x A2.1/Kb mouse derived TCR specific for natural peptide-A2.1 (pA2.1) complexes comprising residues 81-88 of the human homolog of the murine double-minute 2 oncoprotein, MDM2(81-88), we found that the heterodimeric CD8 alpha beta coreceptor, but not normally expressed homodimeric CD8 alpha alpha, is required for tetramer binding and functional redirection of TCR- transduced human T cells. CD8+T cells that received a humanized derivative of the MDM2 TCR bound pA2.1 tetramers only in the presence of an anti-human-CD8 anti-body and required more peptide than wild-type (WT) MDM2 TCR+T cells to mount equivalent cytotoxicity. They were, however, sufficiently effective in recognizing malignant targets including fresh leukemia cells. Most efficient expression of transduced TCR in human T lymphocytes was governed by mouse as compared to human constant (C) alphabeta domains, as demonstrated with partially humanized and murinized TCR of primary mouse and human origin, respectively. We further observed a reciprocal relationship between the level of Tg WT mouse relative to natural human TCR expression, resulting in T cells with decreased normal human cell surface TCR. In contrast, natural human TCR display remained unaffected after delivery of the humanized MDM2 TCR. These results provide important insights into the molecular basis of TCR gene therapy of malignant disease.

Human effector CD8+ T lymphocytes express TLR3 as a functional coreceptor.

TLR are evolutionarily conserved molecules that play a key role in the initiation of innate antimicrobial immune responses. Through their influence on dendritic cell maturation, these receptors are also thought to indirectly shape the adaptive immune response. However, no data are currently available regarding both TLR expression and function in human CD8+ T cell subsets. We report that a subpopulation of CD8+ T cells, i.e., effector, but neither naive nor central memory cells, constitutively expresses TLR3. Moreover, the ligation of the receptor by a specific agonist in TLR3-expressing CD8+ T cells increased IFN-gamma secretion induced by TCR-dependent and -independent stimulation, without affecting proliferation or specific cytolytic activity. These results thereby suggest that TLR3 ligands can not only indirectly influence the adaptive immune response through modulation of dendritic cell activation, but also directly increase IFN-gamma production by Ag-specific CD8+ T cells. Altogether, the present work might open new perspectives for the use of TLR ligands as adjuvants for immunotherapy.

Actin cytoskeleton regulates pollen tube growth and tropism

La fertilisation chez les plantes dépend de la livraison des cellules spermatiques contenues dans le pollen à l’ovule. Au contact du stigmate, le grain de pollen s’hydrate et forme une protubérance, le tube pollinique, chargé de livrer les noyaux spermatiques à l’ovule. Le tube pollinique est une cellule à croissance rapide, anisotrope et non autotrophe; ainsi tout au long de sa croissance à travers l’apoplaste du tissu pistillaire, le tube pollinique puise ses sources de carbohydrates et de minéraux du pistil. Ces éléments servent à la synthèse des constituants de la paroi qui seront acheminés par des vésicules de sécrétion jusqu’à l’apex du tube. Ce dernier doit aussi résister à des pressions mécaniques pour maintenir sa forme cylindrique et doit répondre à différents signaux directionnels pour pouvoir atteindre l’ovule. Mon projet de doctorat était de comprendre le rôle du cytosquelette dans la croissance anisotrope du tube pollinique et d’identifier les éléments responsables de sa croissance et de son guidage. Le cytosquelette du tube pollinique est composé des microfilaments d’actine et des microtubules. Pour assurer une bonne croissance des tubes polliniques in vitro, les carbohydrates et les éléments de croissance doivent être ajoutés au milieu à des concentrations bien spécifiques. J’ai donc optimisé les conditions de croissance du pollen d’Arabidopsis thaliana et de Camellia japonica qui ont été utilisés avec le pollen de Lilium longiflorum comme modèles pour mes expériences. J’ai développé une méthode rapide et efficace de fixation et de marquage du tube pollinique basée sur la technologie des microondes. J’ai aussi utilisé des outils pharmacologiques, mécaniques et moléculaires couplés à différentes techniques de microscopie pour comprendre le rôle du cytosquelette d’actine lors de la croissance et le tropisme du tube pollinique. J’ai trouvé que le cytosquelette d’actine et plus précisément l’anneau d’actine localisé dans la partie sub-apicale du tube est fortement impliqué dans la croissance et le maintien de l’architecture du tube à travers le contrôle de la livraison des vésicules de sécrétion. J’ai construit une chambre galvanotropique qui peut être montée sur un microscope inversé et qui sert à envoyer des signaux tropistiques bien précis à des tubes polliniques en croissance. J’ai trouvé que les filaments d’actine sont impliqués dans la capacité du tube pollinique à changer de direction. Ce comportement tropistique dépend de la concentration du calcium dans le milieu de croissance et du flux de calcium à travers des canaux calciques. Le gradient de calcium établi dans le tube pollinique affecte l’activité de certaines protéines qui se lient à l’actine et dont le rôle est la réorganisation des filaments d’actine. Parmi ces protéines, il y a celles de dépolymérisation de l’actine (ADF) dont deux spécifiquement exprimées dans le gamétophyte mâle d’Arabidopsis (ADF7 et ADF10). Par marquage avec des proteins fluorescents, j’ai trouvé que l’ADF7 et l’ADF10 ont des expressions différentielles pendant la microsporogenèse et la germination et croissance du tube pollinique et qu’elles partagent entre elles des rôles importants durant ces différents stades.

Mécanismes de résistance aux inhibiteurs de CCR5

Le travail décrit dans ce manuscrit vise à caractériser les voies de résistance aux inhibiteurs de CCR5. Lors d’une première étape, nous avons développé un test phénotypique clonal nous permettant d’une part d’identifier le tropisme viral et d’autre part de mesurer la résistance aux inhibiteurs des CCR5. Des virus à tropisme R5 ou X4 représentant aussi peu que 0,4% d’un mélange de populations virales sont détectables par ce test, démontrant ainsi sa sensibilité. De plus, grâce à son approche clonale, cette technique permet de différencier les virus à tropisme double de populations virales mixtes. Par la suite, nous avons étudié l’impact des mutations dans les régions variables de la protéine gp120 de l’enveloppe du virus VIH-1 sur la résistance aux inhibiteurs de CCR5. Pour ce faire, nous avons généré des virus résistants par passage des isolats CC1/85 et BAL, en présence de concentrations sous-inhibitrices de maraviroc (MVC) et vicriviroc (VCV). Après quelques passages du virus CC1/85 en présence de MVC, certaines sont apparues dans differentes régions de la gp120. Par la suite, nous avons sélectionné trois mutations dans les domaines variables de la gp 120, V169M en V2, L317W en V3 et I408T en V4 pour construire des virus contenant des mutations simples, doubles et triples afin d’évaluer la contribution des mutations individuelles ou combinées au phénotype de résistance. Nous avons déterminé la sensibilité de chaque mutant à MVC et VCV, le pourcentage d’infectivité et le tropisme viral par rapport au phénotype sauvage. Tous les mutants ont conservé le tropisme R5 et ont montré une diminution d’infectivité par rapport au contrôle. Nos résultats ont montré que les mutants qui portent des mutations en V4 (I408T) ont eu le plus d'impact sur la susceptibilité au MVC. Finalement, nous avons voulu évaluer l’activité antivirale d’un nouvel inhibiteur de CCR5, VCH-286 avec d’autres inhibiteurs de CCR5 tels que MVC et VVC ainsi que ses interactions avec des médicaments représentatifs de différentes classes d’antirétroviraux ARV employés en clinique pour traiter le HIV/SIDA., afin d’évaluer si ces médicaments pourraient être utilisés dans un même régime thérapeutique. Nous avons tout d’abord évalué indépendamment l’activité antivirale des trois inhibiteurs de CCR5 : VCH-286, MVC et VVC. Par la suite nous avons évalué les interactions de VCH-286 avec MVC et VVC. Finalement nous avons évalué les interactions de VCH-286 avec d’autres médicaments antirétroviraux. Ces études ont montré que VCH-286 est un inhibiteur puissant de CCR5 avec une activité antivirale in vitro de l’ordre du nanomolaire et des interactions médicamenteuses favorables avec la majorité des ARV tels que les inhibiteurs de transcriptase inverse, de protéase, d’intégrase, et de fusion employés en clinique pour traiter le VIH/SIDA et des interactions allant de synergie à l'antagonisme avec les inhibiteurs de CCR5. Nos résultats montrent que la plasticité de l’enveloppe virale du VIH-1 a des répercussions sur la résistance aux inhibiteurs de CCR5, le tropisme et la possible utilisation de ces molécules en combinaison avec d’autres molécules appartenant à la même classe.

A single amino acid in the HA of pH1N1 2009 influenza virus affects cell tropism in human airway epithelium, but not transmission in ferrets

The first pandemic of the 21(st) century, pandemic H1N1 2009 (pH1N1 2009), emerged from a swine-origin source. Although human infections with swine-origin influenza have been reported previously, none went on to cause a pandemic or indeed any sustained human transmission. In previous pandemics, specific residues in the receptor binding site of the haemagglutinin (HA) protein of influenza have been associated with the ability of the virus to transmit between humans. In the present study we investigated the effect of residue 227 in HA on cell tropism and transmission of pH1N1 2009. In pH1N1 2009 and recent seasonal H1N1 viruses this residue is glutamic acid, whereas in swine influenza it is alanine. Using human airway epithelium, we show a differential cell tropism of pH1N1 2009 compared to pH1N1 2009 E227A and swine influenza suggesting this residue may alter the sialic acid conformer binding preference of the HA. Furthermore, both pH1N1 2009 E227A and swine influenza multi-cycle viral growth was found to be attenuated in comparison to pH1N1 2009 in human airway epithelium. However this altered tropism and viral growth in human airway epithelium did not abrogate respiratory droplet transmission of pH1N1 2009 E227A in ferrets. Thus, acquisition of E at residue 227 was not solely responsible for the ability of pH1N1 2009 to transmit between humans.

Colonization, persistence, and tissue tropism of Escherichia coli O26 in conventionally reared weaned lambs

Escherichia coli O26 is recognized as an emerging pathogen associated with disease in both ruminants and humans. Compared to those of E. coli O157:117, the shedding pattern and location of E. coli O26 in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of ruminants are poorly understood. In the studies reported here, an stx-negative E. coli O26 strain of ovine origin was inoculated orally into 6-week-old lambs and the shedding pattern of the O26 strain was monitored by serial bacteriological examination of feces. The location of colonization in the GIT was examined at necropsy at two time points. The numbers of O26 organisms excreted in feces declined from approximately 10(7) to 10(4) CFU per gram of feces by day 7 and continued at this level for a further 3 weeks. Beyond day 30, excretion was from few animals, intermittent, and just above the detection limit. By day 38, all fecal samples were negative, but at necropsy, O26 organisms were recovered from the upper GIT, specifically the ileum. However, no attaching-effacing (AE) lesions were observed. To identify the location of E. coli O26 within the GIT early after inoculation, two lambs were examined postmortem, 4 days postinoculation. High numbers of O26 organisms were recovered from all GIT sites examined, and similar to 10(9) CFU were recovered from 1 gram of ileal tissue from one animal. Despite high numbers of O26 organisms, AE lesions were identified on the mucosa of the ascending colon of only one animal. These data indicate that E. coli O26 readily colonizes 6-week-old lambs, but the sparseness of AE lesions suggests that O26 is well adapted to this host, and mechanisms other than those dependent upon intimin may play a role in persistence.

Organ tropism during the acute and chronic phases of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in BALB/c mice

The aim of the present study was to investigate the presence of Trypanosoma cruzi in the heart, liver, lung, and kidneys, using hemoculture and PCR analysis, of mice infected with different parasite strains during the acute and chronic phases of infection. Parasitemia curves revealed strain-specific biological behaviors. For the Y and JLP strains, the acute phase of infection started at days six and ten post-infection, parasitemia peaked at days seven and 15 post-infection, the chronic phase started at days nine and 28 post-infection, and animals started dying at days 19 and 120 post-infection, respectively. When the two strains were compared, the JLP strain exhibited reduced and slower replication rates associated with a delayed peak of parasitism and reduced parasite burdens. However, parasites were detected in all studied organs using PCR analysis. The capacity of both strains to infect different organs likely influences disease pathogenesis.