Étude de l’expression de la molécule d’adhérence CD146 dans les lymphocytes T

Les tumeurs solides sont infiltrées par des cellules immunes (TIIC) dont la nature, la fonction et la composition varient d’un patient à l'autre. Ces cellules inflammatoires influencent l'invasion tumorale en contrôlant la croissance et le potentiel métastatique d’une tumeur. Ainsi, il est proposé d’utiliser cette infiltration comme outil diagnostic et pronostic de routine. Certaines cellules sont bien connues pour jouer un rôle important dans le contrôle de la progression tumorale, comme c’est le cas des lymphocytes T cytotoxiques CD8+ alors que d’autres possèdent un rôle contradictoire. Étant donné la dépendance des tumeurs sur l’équilibre entre ces différentes cellules, il est important d’identifier les fonctions précises des cellules immunes au sein de la tumeur. De nombreuses études sont réalisées afin d’identifier des marqueurs descriptifs du phénotype et la fonction des cellules immunes dans la tumeur. Ce projet de doctorat se divise en deux parties : 1- Identifier la méthode de désagrégation des tissus tumoraux altérant le moins la biologie des TIIC pour leur caractérisation. 2- Caractériser l’expression de la molécule d’adhérence CD146 dans les TIIC et en identifier l’origine. L’identification de marqueurs pour la caractérisation phénotypique et fonctionnelle des TIIC a été réalisée, entre autres, par la détection de protéines exprimées par la cellule. Dans la première partie de ce projet, nous avons démontré que les méthodes utilisées pour désagréger les tissus tumoraux dans le but d’isoler les TIIC induisent des changements dans la biologie de ces cellules ce qui peut fausser les conclusions qui en dérivent. Nous avons donc comparé l'impact de trois méthodes de désagrégation : une dissociation mécanique utilisant la MédimachineTM et deux digestions enzymatiques utilisant une collagénase de type I seule ou combinée à de la collagénase de type IV et de la DNase I de type II. Nous nous sommes intéressés à l'effet de ces méthodes sur des paramètres tels que la viabilité cellulaire, l’altération des protéines de surface et la capacité des cellules à proliférer. Nous avons démontré que ces méthodes affectent la viabilité des cellules de manière comparable, alors que la détection de certaines protéines de surface et la capacité de proliférer est réduite/inhibée par les traitements enzymatiques. Nous concluons qu’une méthode mécanique utilisant la MédimachineTM est mieux adaptée à la caractérisation des TIIC afin de conserver leurs propriétés. Dans la deuxième partie de notre projet, nous avons adapté cette méthode à la caractérisation des TIIC. Nous avons porté une attention particulière à la molécule d’adhérence CD146 dont l’implication dans la migration des cellules immunes à travers l’endothélium vers les sites d’inflammation est de plus en plus étudiée dans les maladies autoimmunes. Nous avons mis en évidence une augmentation des proportions de cellules immunes exprimant CD146 dans les tumeurs comparativement au sang de patients de cancers. Cette expression est induite par les cellules tumorales tout en étant accrue par la nécrose de celles-ci. Nous démontrons que ces cellules sont majoritairement des lymphocytes T CD4+ présentant un profil immunosuppressif. En conclusion, nos résultats suggèrent que CD146 participe à la mise en place du contexte immunitaire dans la tumeur et augmente la capacité de migration des lymphocytes T CD4+. L’induction par les cellules tumorales de cette molécule d’adhérence dans les cellules suppressives pourrait contribuer aux mécanismes immunorégulateurs mis en place par la tumeur. CD146 pourrait être un marqueur d’intérêt pour l’identification des cellules immunosuppressives et pour le développement de nouvelles thérapies.

Autocrine fibroblast growth factor 2 increases the multipotentiality of human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells

Multipotent mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), first identified in the bone marrow, have subsequently been found in many other tissues, including fat, cartilage, muscle, and bone. Adipose tissue has been identified as an alternative to bone marrow as a source for the isolation of MSCs, as it is neither limited in volume nor as invasive in the harvesting. This study compares the multipotentiality of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) with that of adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AMSCs) from 12 age- and sex-matched donors. Phenotypically, the cells are very similar, with only three surface markers, CD106, CD146, and HLA-ABC, differentially expressed in the BMSCs. Although colony-forming units-fibroblastic numbers in BMSCs were higher than in AMSCs, the expression of multiple stem cell-related genes, like that of fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2), the Wnt pathway effectors FRAT1 and frizzled 1, and other self-renewal markers, was greater in AMSCs. Furthermore, AMSCs displayed enhanced osteogenic and adipogenic potential, whereas BMSCs formed chondrocytes more readily than AMSCs. However, by removing the effects of proliferation from the experiment, AMSCs no longer out-performed BMSCs in their ability to undergo osteogenic and adipogenic differentiation. Inhibition of the FGF2/fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 signaling pathway demonstrated that FGF2 is required for the proliferation of both AMSCs and BMSCs, yet blocking FGF2 signaling had no direct effect on osteogenic differentiation. Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest is found at the end of this article.

Limbal mesenchymal stromal cells (L-MSC) display immunosuppressive properties across donor and species boundaries

Purpose: We have evaluated the immunosuppressive properties of L-MSC with the view to using these cells in allogeneic cell therapies for corneal disorders. We hypothesized that L-MSC cultures would suppress T-cell activation, in a similar way to those established from human bone marrow (BM-MSC). Methods: MSC cultures were established from the limbal stroma of cadaveric donor eye tissue (up to 1 week postmortem) using either conventional serum-supplemented growth medium or a commercial serum-free medium optimized for bone marrow derived MSC (MesenCult-XF system). The MSC phenotype was examined by flow cytometry according to current and emerging markers for human MSC. Immunosuppressive properties were assessed using a mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR) assay, whereby the white cell fraction from two immunologically incompatible blood donors are cultured together in direct contact with growth arrested MSC. T-cell activation (proliferation) was measured by uptake of tritiated thymidine. Human L-MSC were tested in parallel with human BM-MSC and rabbit L-MSC. Human and rabbit L-MSC were also tested for their ability to stimulate the growth of limbal epithelial (LE) cells in colony formation assays (for both human as well as rabbit LE cells). Results: L-MSC cultures were >95% negative for CD34, CD45 and HLA-DR and positive for CD73, CD90, CD105 and HLA-ABC. Modest levels (30%) of CD146 expression were observed for L-MSC cultures grown in serum-supplemented growth medium, but not those grown in MesenCult-XF. All MSC cultures derived from both human and rabbit tissue suppressed T-cell activation to varying degrees according to culture technique and species (MesenCult-XF >> serum-fed cultures, rabbit L-MSC >> human L-MSC). All L-MSC stimulated colony formation by LE cells irrespectively of the combination of cell species used. Conclusions: L-MSC display immunosuppressive qualities, in addition to their established non-immunogenic cell surface marker profile, and stimulate LE cell growth in vitro across species boundaries. These results support the potential use of allogeneic or even xenogeneic L-MSC in the treatment of corneal disorders.

Immunosuppressive properties of mesenchymal stromal cell cultures derived from the limbus of human and rabbit corneas

Background aims Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) cultivated from the corneal limbus (L-MSCs) provide a potential source of cells for corneal repair. In the present study, we investigated the immunosuppressive properties of human L-MSCs and putative rabbit L-MSCs to develop an allogeneic therapy and animal model of L-MSC transplantation. Methods MSC-like cultures were established from the limbal stroma of human and rabbit (New Zealand white) corneas using either serum-supplemented medium or a commercial serum-free MSC medium (MesenCult-XF Culture Kit; Stem Cell Technologies, Melbourne, Australia). L-MSC phenotype was examined by flow cytometry. The immunosuppressive properties of L-MSC cultures were assessed using mixed leukocyte reactions. L-MSC cultures were also tested for their ability to support colony formation by primary limbal epithelial (LE) cells. Results Human L-MSC cultures were typically CD34−, CD45− and HLA-DR− and CD73+, CD90+, CD105+ and HLA-ABC+. High levels (>80%) of CD146 expression were observed for L-MSC cultures grown in serum-supplemented medium but not cultures grown in MesenCult-XF (approximately 1%). Rabbit L-MSCs were approximately 95% positive for major histocompatibility complex class I and expressed lower levels of major histocompatibility complex class II (approximately 10%), CD45 (approximately 20%), CD105 (approximately 60%) and CD90 (<10%). Human L-MSCs and rabbit L-MSCs suppressed human T-cell proliferation by up to 75%. Conversely, L-MSCs from either species stimulated a 2-fold to 3-fold increase in LE cell colony formation. Conclusions L-MSCs display immunosuppressive qualities in addition to their established non-immunogenic profile and stimulate LE cell growth in vitro across species boundaries. These results support the potential use of allogeneic L-MSCs in the treatment of corneal disorders and suggest that the rabbit would provide a useful pre-clinical model.

Caractérisation neuro-immunitaire d'un modèle d'encéphalomyélite auto-immune expérimentale spontanée

La sclérose en plaques est une maladie neuroinflammatoire idiopathique caractérisée par la formation de lésions focales de démyélinisation, qui apparaissent suite à l’infiltration périvasculaire de cellules immunitaires et à l’augmentation de la perméabilité de la barrière hémato-encéphalique. L’encéphalomyélite auto-immune expérimentale (EAE) est le modèle animal de cette maladie. Cependant, ce modèle présente des différences importantes avec la sclérose en plaques. L’objectif de ce projet de maîtrise était d’approfondir la caractérisation d’un nouveau modèle transgénique d’encéphalomyélite auto-immune expérimentale spontanée, le modèle TCR1640, afin de valider celui-ci pour l’étude des phénomènes physiopathologiques qui surviennent à différents stades de la sclérose en plaques, ainsi que pour le développement de nouveaux traitements de la maladie. La souris TCR1640 porte un récepteur des cellules T (TCR) transgénique autoréactif, qui reconnaît un peptide de la myéline et déclenche une réaction auto-immune contre la myéline endogène au sein du système nerveux central (SNC). Des observations faites in situ et in vitro ont permis d’identifier des changements qui surviennent de façon très précoce dans l’unité neurovasculaire chez les animaux TCR1640 présymptomatiques, et qui sont liés à la présence d’un profil immunitaire périphérique proinflammatoire. Lors des phases actives de l’EAE spontanée, les animaux TCR1640 au stade chronique présentent une inflammation accrue du système nerveux central associée à une infiltration leucocytaire massive, par rapport aux animaux au stade aigu de la maladie. Une étude in vivo a également permis de moduler la maladie développée par des animaux ayant subi une immunisation passive avec des cellules T auxiliaires en provenance de souris TCR1640. Enfin, l’implication de nouvelles molécules d’adhésion cellulaire dans le développement et le maintien de l’EAE spontanée a été suggérée par des observations in vitro. L’ensemble de ces résultats suggère que le modèle TCR1640 présente plusieurs avantages pour l’étude de la physiopathologie de maladies neuroinflammatoires telles que la sclérose en plaques, et servira d’outil afin de valider de nouvelles stratégies thérapeutiques.

Caractérisation du rôle de MCAM dans la sclérose en plaques

Objectifs: Chez les patients atteints de sclérose en plaques (SEP), des lymphocytes pro-inflammatoires utilisent des molécules d’adhérence afin de parvenir à traverser la barrière hémo-encéphalique (BHE) et former des lésions multifocales dans le système nerveux central (SNC). Dans le contexte de la SEP, les lymphocytes CD4 auto-agressifs polarisés en TH17 (sécrétant de l’IL-17) sont reconnus comme contribuant à la formation des lésions. Le rôle des lymphocytes CD8 TC17 est quant à lui encore mal défini. L’identification de marqueurs de surface spécifiquement exprimés par les lymphocytes TH17 et TC17 faciliterait la caractérisation de ces sous-populations pathogéniques et fournirait de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques pour traiter la SEP. Méthodologie: Nous avons identifié MCAM lors d’analyses protéomiques de cellules endothéliales de la BHE humaine et de lymphocytes T humains. Nous avons caractérisé le phénotype et la fonction de ces cellules exprimant MCAM ex vivo, in vitro, in situ et in vivo, à partir de matériel obtenu de témoins (contrôles), de patients atteints de SEP et d’animaux atteints d’encéphalomyélite auto-immune expérimentale (EAE). Résultats: MCAM est exprimé à la fois par les cellules endothéliales de la BHE humaine et par une sous-population de lymphocytes T effecteurs mémoire CD161+ et CCR6+. Les lymphocytes CD4 et CD8 MCAM+ expriment plus d’IL-17, IL-22, GM-CSF et granzyme B (Gz B) que les lymphocytes MCAMneg. De plus, l’expression de MCAM est fortement augmentée à la surface des lymphocytes T CD4+ et CD8+ lors des poussées de SEP, alors que les traitements immunomodulateurs en diminuent l’expression. In situ, l’expression de MCAM par les cellules endothéliales de la BHE est plus marquée au site des lésions de SEP et d’EAE, et on retrouve des lymphocytes CD4 et CD8 MCAM+ au sein de ces infiltrats périvasculaires du SNC. In vitro, les lymphocytes CD8 MCAM+ causent plus de mort oligodendrocytaire et bloquer MCAM diminue la transmigration des CD8 TC17 et des CD4 TH17 à travers les cellules endothéliales de la BHE humaine. In vivo, dépléter les lymphocytes CD4 ou CD8 MCAM+ améliore les signes cliniques de l’EAE par transfert. Par ailleurs, l’expression de MCAM est régulée à la hausse à la surface des lymphocytes CD4 et CD8 de la souris transgénique TCR1640, un modèle animal d’EAE spontanée. Finalement, bloquer MCAM atténue les déficits neurologiques chroniques aussi bien du modèle d’EAE induite avec le MOG35-55 que du modèle d’EAE spontanée. Conclusion: Nos données démontrent que les lymphocytes encéphalitogéniques produisant de l’IL-17 et présentant une capacité effectrice et migratoire marquée expriment MCAM. MCAM pourrait servir de biomarqueur en SEP et constituer une cible thérapeutique valable pour traiter les conditions neuroinflammatoires.

Phototherapy up-regulates dentin matrix proteins expression and synthesis by stem cells from human-exfoliated deciduous teeth

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Vascular wall stem cells. Selection and conditioning of progenitors useful for cell therapy. A pathological case study

The arterial wall contains MSCs with mesengenic and angiogenic abilities. These multipotent precursors have been isolated from variously-sized human adult segments, belying the notion that vessel wall is a relatively quiescent tissue. Recently, our group identified in normal human arteries a vasculogenic niche and subsequently isolated and characterized resident MSCs (VW-MSCs) with angiogenic ability and multilineage potential. To prove that VW-MSCs are involved in normal and pathological vascular remodeling, we used a long-term organ culture system; this method was of critical importance to follow spontaneous 3-D vascular remodeling without any influence of blood cells. Next we tried to identify and localize in situ the VW-MSCs and to understand their role in the vascular remodeling in failed arterial homografts. Subsequently, we isolated this cell population and tested in vitro their multilineage differentiation potential through immunohistochemical, immunofluorescence, RT-PCR and ultrastructural analysis. From 25-30cm2 of each vascular wall homograft sample, we isolated a cell population with MSCs properties; these cells expressed MSC lineage molecules (CD90, CD44, CD105, CD29, CD73), stemness (Notch-1, Oct-4, Sca-1, Stro-1) and pericyte markers (NG2) whilst were negative for hematopoietic and endothelial markers (CD34, CD133, CD45, KDR, CD146, CD31 and vWF). MSCs derived from failed homografts (H-MSCs) exhibited adipogenic, osteogenic and chondrogenic potential but scarce propensity to angiogenic and leiomyogenic differentiation. The present study demonstrates that failed homografts contain MSCs with morphological, phenotypic and functional MSCs properties; H-MSCs are long-lived in culture, highly proliferating and endowed with prompt ability to differentiate into adipocytes, osteocytes and chondrocytes; compared with VW-MSCs from normal arteries, H-MSCs show a failure in angiogenic and leiomyogenic differentiation. A switch in MSCs plasticity could be the basis of pathological remodeling and contribute to aneurysmal failure of arterial homografts. The study of VW-MSCs in a pathological setting indicate that additional mechanisms are involved in vascular diseases; their knowledge will be useful for opening new therapeutic options in cardiovascular diseases.

Cause or effect of arteriogenesis: compositional alterations of microparticles from CAD patients undergoing external counterpulsation therapy

Recently, a clinical study on patients with stable coronary artery disease (CAD) showed that external counterpulsation therapy (ECP) at high (300 mmHg) but not at low inflation pressure (80 mmHg) promoted coronary collateral growth, most likely due to shear stress-induced arteriogenesis. The exact molecular mechanisms behind shear stress-induced arteriogenesis are still obscure. We therefore characterized plasma levels of circulating microparticles (MPs) from these CAD patients because of their ambivalent nature as a known cardiovascular risk factor and as a promoter of neovascularization in the case of platelet-derived MPs. MPs positive for Annexin V and CD31CD41 were increased, albeit statistically significant (P<0.05, vs. baseline) only in patients receiving high inflation pressure ECP as determined by flow cytometry. MPs positive for CD62E, CD146, and CD14 were unaffected. In high, but not in low, inflation pressure treatment, change of CD31CD41 was inversely correlated to the change in collateral flow index (CFI), a measure for collateral growth. MPs from the high inflation pressure group had a more sustained pro-angiogenic effect than the ones from the low inflation pressure group, with the exception of one patient showing also an increased CFI after treatment. A total of 1005 proteins were identified by a label-free proteomics approach from MPs of three patients of each group applying stringent acceptance criteria. Based on semi-quantitative protein abundance measurements, MPs after ECP therapy contained more cellular proteins and increased CD31, corroborating the increase in MPs. Furthermore, we show that MP-associated factors of the innate immune system were decreased, many membrane-associated signaling proteins, and the known arteriogenesis stimulating protein transforming growth factor beta-1 were increased after ECP therapy. In conclusion, our data show that ECP therapy increases platelet-derived MPs in patients with CAD and that the change in protein cargo of MPs is likely in favor of a pro angiogenic/arteriogenic property.

3D scaffolds co-seeded with human endothelial progenitor and mesenchymal stem cells: evidence of prevascularisation within 7 days

Blood supply is a critical issue in most tissue engineering approaches for large defect healing. As vessel ingrowth from surrounding tissues is proven to be insufficient, current strategies are focusing on the neo-vascularisation process. In the present study, we developed an in vitro pre-vascularised construct using 3D polyurethane (PU) scaffolds, based on the association of human Endothelial Progenitor Cells (EPC, CD34+ and CD133+) with human Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSC). We showed the formation of luminal tubular structures in the co-seeded scaffolds as early as day 7 in culture. These tubular structures were proven positive for endothelial markers von Willebrand Factor and PECAM-1. Of special significance in our constructs is the presence of CD146-positive cells, as a part of the neovasculature scaffolding. These cells, coming from the mesenchymal stem cells population (MSC or EPC-depleted MSC), also expressed other markers of pericyte cells (NG2 and αSMA) that are known to play a pivotal function in the stabilisation of newly formed pre-vascular networks. In parallel, in co-cultures, osteogenic differentiation of MSCs occurred earlier when compared to MSCs monocultures, suggesting the close cooperation between the two cell populations. The presence of angiogenic factors (from autologous platelet lysates) in association with osteogenic factors seems to be crucial for both cell populations' cooperation. These results are promising for future clinical applications, as all components (cells, growth factors) can be prepared in an autologous way.

MCAM/MUC18 REGULATES MELANOMA PROGRESSION BY MODULATING THE EXPRESSION OF ID-1

The acquisition of the metastatic melanoma phenotype is associated with increased expression of the melanoma cell adhesion molecule MCAM/MUC18 (CD146). However, the mechanism by which MUC18 contributes to melanoma metastasis remains unclear. Herein, we stably silenced MUC18 expression utilizing lentivirus-incorporated small hairpin RNA, in two metastatic melanoma cell lines, A375SM and C8161, and conducted cDNA microarray analysis. We identified and validated that the transcriptional regulator, Inhibitor of DNA Binding-1 (Id-1), previously shown to function as an oncogene in several malignancies, was downregulated by 5.6-fold following MUC18 silencing. Additionally, we found that MUC18 regulated Id-1 expression at the transcriptional level via ATF-3. Interestingly, ATF-3 was upregulated by 6.9 fold in our cDNA microarray analysis following MUC18 silencing. ChIP analysis showed increased binding of ATF-3 to the Id-1 promoter after MUC18 silencing, while mutation of the ATF-3 binding site on the Id-1 promoter increased Id-1 promoter activity in MUC18-silenced cells. These Data suggest that MUC18 silencing promotes inhibition of Id-1 expression by increasing ATF-3 expression and binding to the Id-1 promoter. Rescue of MUC18 reverted the expression of Id-1 and ATF-3, thus validating that they are not off-target effects of MUC18. To further assess the role of Id-1 in melanoma invasion and metastasis, we overexpressed Id-1 in MUC18-silenced cells. Overexpression of Id-1 in MUC18-silenced cells resulted in increased cell invasion, as well as increased expression and activity of MMP-2. Our data further reveal that Id-1 regulates MMP-2 at the transcriptional level through Sp1 and Ets-1. This is the first report to demonstrate that MUC18 does not act exclusively in cell adherence, but is also involved in cell signaling that regulates the expression of genes, such as Id-1 and ATF-3, thus contributing to the metastatic melanoma phenotype.

Analysis of Recent benthic foraminiferal assemblages from the oxygen minimum zone of the Pakistan continental margin

Live (Rose Bengal stained) and dead benthic foraminiferal communities (hard-shelled species only) from the Pakistan continental margin oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) have been studied in order to determine the relation between faunal composition and the oxygenation of bottom waters. During R.R.S. Charles Darwin Cruises 145 and 146 (12 March to May 28 2003), 11 multicores were taken on the continental margin off Karachi, Pakistan. Two transects were sampled, constituting a composite bathymetric profile from 136 m (above the OMZ in spring 2003) down to 1870 m water depth. Cores (surface area 25.5 cm2) were processed as follows: for stations situated above, and in the upper part of the OMZ, sediment slices were taken for the 0-0.5 and 0.5-1 cm intervals, and then in 1 cm intervals down to 10 cm. For the lower part of the OMZ, the second centimetre was also sliced in half-centimetre intervals. Each sample was stored in 10 % borax-buffered formalin for further processing. Onshore, the samples were wet sieved over 63 µm, 150 µm and 300 µm sieves and the residues were stained for one week in ethanol with Rose Bengal. After staining, the residue was washed again. The stained faunas were picked wet in three granulometric fractions (63-150 µm, 150-300 µm and >300 µm), down to 10 cm depth. To gain more insight into the population dynamics we investigated the dead (unstained) foraminifera in the 2-3 cm level for the fractions 150-300 µm and >300 µm. The fractions >300 µm and 150-300 µm show nearly the same faunal distribution and therefore the results are presented here for both fractions combined (i.e. the >150 µm fraction). Live foraminiferal densities show a clear maximum in the first half centimetre of the sediment; only few specimens are found down to 4 cm depth. The faunas exhibit a clear zonation across the Pakistan margin OMZ. Down to 500 m water depth, Uvigerina ex gr. U. semiornata and Bolivina aff. B. dilatata dominate the assemblages. These taxa are largely restricted to the upper cm of the sediment. They are adapted to the very low bottom-water oxygen values (ab. 0.1 ml/l in the OMZ core) and the extremely high input of organic carbon on the upper continental slope. The lower part of the OMZ is characterized by cosmopolitan faunas, containing also some taxa that in other areas have been described in deep infaunal microhabitats.

Stable carbon and oxygen isotope ratios for different test sizes of live benthic foraminifera from the Arabian Sea

We determined the stable oxygen and carbon isotopic composition of live (Rose Bengal stained) tests belonging to different size classes of two benthic foraminiferal species from the Pakistan continental margin. Samples were taken at 2 sites, with water depth of about 135 and 275 m, corresponding to the upper boundary and upper part of the core region of the oxygen minimum zone (OMZ). For Uvigerina ex gr. U. semiornata and Bolivina aff. B. dilatata, delta13C and delta18O values increased significantly with increasing test size. In the case of U. ex gr. U. semiornata, delta13C increased linearly by about 0.105 per mil for each 100-µm increment in test size, whereas delta18O increased by 0.02 to 0.06 per mil per 100 µm increment. For B. aff. B. dilatata the relationship between test size and stable isotopic composition is better described by logarithmic equations. A strong positive linear correlation is observed between delta18O and delta13C values of both taxa, with a constant ratio of delta18O and delta13C values close to 2:1. This suggests that the strong ontogenetic effect is mainly caused by kinetic isotope fractionation during CO2 uptake. Our data underline the necessity to base longer delta18O and delta13C isotope records derived from benthic foraminifera on size windows of 100 µm or less. This is already common practice in down-core isotopic studies of planktonic foraminifera.